Class 

Book 




; 8 



Copyrights 



10 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



AN 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 



FROM THE 



CREATION TO THE FALL OF THE WESTERN 
EMPIRE IN A. D. 476. 



WITH NUMEROUS MAPS AND PLANS OF CITIES. 
s 4- 

By A? J."B. VUIBERT, S. S., A. M., 

PROFESSOR OF RHETORIC AND HISTORY IN ST. CHARLES'S 
COLLEGE, ELLICOTT CITY, MD. 






Histories make men wise. — Bacon. 






baltimore i 

Foley Brothers, Publishers, 

4 light street. 

1886. 



i 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1886, 

By A. J. B. VUIBERT, S. S., A. M. 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. 



V1* 






Letter from his Eminence, 
The Cardinal Archbishop of Baltimore. 



Baltimore », July 30th, 1886. 

I take great pleasure in recommending to the students of 
history, and particularly to the Colleges and Schools of this 
Archdiocese, the " Ancient History " compiled by the Rev. 
A. J. B. Vuibert, S. S., A. M., Professor of Rhetoric and 
History in St. Charles's College. 

The many years' experience which Father Vuibert has 
enjoyed as Professor of History, his studious habits and 
eminent abilities warrant me in believing that this work will 
be warmly welcomed, and that it will have a more extensive 
circulation than even the well-known Ancient History of 
Rev. Dr. Fredet. 

JAMES CARD. GIBBONS, 

Archbishop of Baltimore. 



111 



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PREFACE. 



IT age has witnessed important revolutions in the field 
of Ancient History. The deciphering- ot* the Egyptian 
hieroglyphics ; the recent discovery and interpretation of the 
cuneiform records of Assyria ; the excavations made in Troas, 

e, and elsewhere; finally, a more critical study ol 
Gre< v . id 1 atin authors, have thrown on many points of 
ancient history — both sacred and profane, an entirely new 
light. To embody in a moderate-sized compendium, adapted 
to the wants of Colleges. Academies, and Schools, the results 
dern research thus for obtained, is the object of the 
present work. A glance at the Table of Contents will show 
the simplicity of its plan. 

Altera brief account of the Prehistorical Age drawn from 
c renesiSt Ancient Egypt -"thefirst nation that has a history" — 
is treated. Then come in order the Phoenicians and the 
Hebrews; the Chaldeans, Assyrians, and Babylonians; the 
Medes and the Persians; the Greeks and the Macedonians; 

:ly, Ancient Rome; the separate account of each being 

ttmued till its absorption by some stronger power. As 
for those nations which piayed but a secondary part in the 
world. — such as Ethiopia. Lydia, Armenia, Pergamus. Pontus, 
and Parthia, in the east ; Sicily, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and 
Cartilage, in the west — their history is interwoven with that 
of the countries with which they were more closely connected. 
Thus has all useless repetition been avoided, clearness secured, 
and room obtained for a sketch of the progress of art and 
letters, a description of government and manners, an account 
of religion and education, and the introduction of many 
points peculiarly useful to the student of the ancient classics. 

While the history of civilization—letters, institutions, arts, 
manners — occupies much of the space usually allotted to feats 
of war, the author has not forgotten that a book for the 
young derives its chief interest from descriptions of battles, 
lively anecdotes, and the animated narration of important 
events. A mere summary ot historical facts fails, as experi- 
ence proves, to enlist the attention of the pupil. 



vi PREFACE. 

The history of each people is preceded by such geographi- 
cal details as are deemed necessary for the better understand- 
ing of the subsequent narrative. Besides separate maps of 
the empires of Alexander and Augustus, of Egypt, Palestine 
and Phoenicia, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, Greece, Italy, and 
Gaul, there are plans of the cities of Rome, Athens, Jerusalem, 
and Syracuse, as also of the battle-fields of Marathon and 
Thermopylae. 

The headings in bolder type, which under each chapter 
introduce the separate paragraphs, are so worded as to 
facilitate the work of the class-room, naturally suggesting 
the questions to be asked. 

Should some of the earliest portions of ancient history, 
above all that of Egypt, or some further chapters,— those, 
for instance, on the military organization or government 
of Rome, the account of Qrecian and Roman literature, 
prove too serious for younger students, they may be 
reserved for more advanced classes. In like manner, should 
the book be found too long, the Third Part — The Hebrews, 
or the Israelites — might be made the subject of the Bible 
History class. This branch, though generally studied apart 
we have thought advisable not to omit, since it is the 
history of God's chosen people, and the liveliest picture of 
early antiquity we possess. 

In conclusion, the book, from beginning to end, is of an 
elementary kind, never aspiring to original research ; and the 
writer claims no merit to himself beyond what he hopes will 
be found in the order, arrangement, and choice of materials. 
Where older writers were deemed sure guides, they have 
been followed ; for later developments, the works of our 
contemporaries — G. Rawlinson, j. Kenrick, Grote, Merivale, 
Wm. and Ph. Smith, Lenormant, Vigouroux, Couren, Cantu, 
and others — have been largely employed. To several of his 
fellow-professors at St. Charles's College, the author is under 
great obligation for valuable aid, and especially to his friend, 
Mr. J. B. Tabb, by whom the Ms. has been carefully revised. 

St. Charles's College, 

Ellicott City, Md. 
June 30th, 78S6. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. 

THE BIBLICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PREHISTORIC AGE. 

CHAPTER I. 
From the Creation to the Flood. — b. c. ? -3308. 

The Creation of the World — of Adam (b. c. 4963) — of Eve. Man's 
Probation and Fall. The promise of a Redeemer. Cain and Abel. 
The posterity of Cain. Origin of the Mechanical and Liberal Arts. 
The Race of Seth. Longevity of the Antediluvian Patriarchs. Perver- 
sion of the Human Race. Uncertainty of the Biblical Chronologies. 
Page 15. 

CHAPTER II. 
From the Flood to the Dispersion of Men. — b. c. 3308- ? 

Building of the Ark. The Flood (b. c. 3308 — Its Universality merely 
Relative. Noah's Sacrifice. God's Blessings, Precepts, and Covenant. 
Noah's Blessing and Curse. The Tower of Babel and Confusion of 
Tongues. The Three Great Pluman Families. Postdiluvian Civiliza- 
tion. Decrease of Human Longevity. General Idolatry and Cor- 
ruption. P. 22. 



PART II. 

THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 

FROM THE DAWN OF THE MONARCHY, TO THE PERSIAN CONQUEST 

IN 527 B. C. 

CHAPTER I. 
The Land, Language, and Early Civilization of Egypt. 

The Land of Egypt and the Nile. Egyptian Writing: Hieroglyphic, 
Hieratic, Demotic. The Rosetta Stone. The Deciphering of the 
Egyptian Language. Early Civilization of the Egyptians. Unsettled 
Chronology: Manetho's List of Kings. Epochs of Egvptian History. 
P. 29. 

CHAPTER II. 

The Memphian Monarchy. 

Rise of the Memphian Monarchy. The Pyramids and Pyramid Kings. 

Social Life under the Memphian Monarchy. First Evidence of a 

United Egypt. Dismemberment of the Memphian Monarchy. P. 32. 

vii 



Viii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

First Theban Monarchy (? b. c. 2500-2120), and the Shepherd 
Kings (? b. c. 2 120-1900). 

Situation and Rise of Thebes. Trade and Commerce under Dynasty 
xi. Monuments and Conquests of Dynasty XII ; the Sesostris Legend, 
or Usurtasen Hi ; Lake Moeris ; the Labyrinth ; Increase of Luxury ; 
Sepulchres at Beni-Hassan. — The Hyksos Conquest ; the Shepherd 
Kings ; Joseph and Apepi (b. c. 2090). P. 36. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The New Theban Monarchy. — About b. c. 1 900-1 100. 

Chief Rulers of Dynasty xvill — its Wars and Conquests — its Monu- 
ments: Temples of Amnion, at Karnah and at Luxor; the Twin 
Colossi, the 'Vocal Memnon.' Dynasty Xix: Setii; his Wars, Hall 
of Columns, and Tomb. Rameses 11: his Wars and Razzias, and Great 
Works; a Patron of Letters; the Oppressor of Israel and his Native 
Subjects; Condition of the Peasantry. Menephtha: Invasion of Egypt 
from Libya; Menephtha and Moses; the Exodus (b. c. 1645). Archi- 
tecture under Dynasties xvill and xix. Dynasty XX. Rameses HI ; 
Piratical Hordes ; Monuments. Decline of Egypt. P. 43. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Kingdoms of the Delta (about b. c. 1100-750). — The Ethio- 
pian Pharaohs (about 750-650). — The Later Saite 
Monarchy (b. c. 650-527) 

Dynasty (Tanite) xxi (about B. C 1100-940. Sesac (b. c. 940-918). 
Disintegration of Egypt. The City of Bubastis. — Ethiopia: the Na- 
tives ; Napata. The Ethiopian Piankhi Ruler of Egypt (about B. c. 
750). Revolt of Tafnekht. Sabaco 1; Battle of Raphia (b. c. 719). 
End of the Ethiopian Rule (b. c. 650). Depressed State of Egypt. Later- 
Sa'.te Monarchy (b. c. 650-527); Psammetichus. Sai's; the Feast of 
Lamps. Conquests of Psammetichus ; Secession of the Warriors. Ne- 
chao's (b. c. 61 1-596) Fleets, Ship-canal and Circumnavigation of Africa ; 
Expedition to Carchemish (b. c. 608) ; Nabuchodonosor's Counter Ex- 
pedition (B.C. 605). Apries; Nabuchodonosor invades Egypt (b. c 568); 
Amasis (b. c. 568-529) ; Condition of Egypt ; its Subjugation by Cam- 
byses (b. C 527 or 525). P. 53. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Institutions, Religion, and Arts of Egypt. 

Classes of the Egyptians: the Priests, the Warriors, the People. The 
King and Royal Princes. Legislative Power. Criminal Code. Judicial 
and Civil Administration. Religion. Egyptian Pantheon: Ammon, 
Khem,Ra, Phthah, Osiris, Isis, etc.; Triads of Deities; Worship; Sym- 
bols of the Gods and Animal Worship ; Bull Apis. Belief in the 
Immortality of the Soul ; Ritual of the Dead. Moral Depravity. Lit- 
eiature, Architecture, Sculpture, Painting. P. 63. 



CONTENTS. ix 

PART III. 

THE PHOENICIANS. 

FROM THE DAWN OF THEIR HISTORY TO THEIR SUBJUGATION BY THE 

ASSYRIANS. 

Phoenicia; its Resources; its Cities and their relations to Egypt. 
The Phoenician Alphabet. Supremacy, Colonies, and Commerce of 
Sidon ; her Decline. The Phoenician League under the Supremacy 
of Tyre. Fleets, Soldiers, and Colonies of Tyre. Hiram and his Great 
Works. Foundation of Carthage. Relations of the Phoenicians with 
the Assyrians. Sargon's siege of Tyre (b. c 720-715). Tyre the Vassal 
of Assyria and Egypt (b. c. 700-608). Siege of Tyre by Nabuchodon- 
osor (b. c. 598-585). Present state of Tyre and Sidon. P, 73. 



PART IV. 

THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES. 

FROM THE CALL OF ABRAHAM, B. C. 2296, TO THE FALL OF JERUSALEM, 

B. C. 587. 

CHAPTER I. 
Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph. — b. c. 2296-2003. 
Call of Abraham (b. c. 2296). Abraham in Egypt. His Separation 
from Lot, and* Rescue of Lot. Melchizedek. Birth of Ismael. Cov- 
enant of Circumcision; the names of Abraham and Sarai changed. 
Destruction of Sodom and Gomorra. Birth of Isaac (b. c. 2266). Agar 
and Ismael are cast forth. Offering of Isaac (b. c. 2241). Death and 
Burial of Sarah. Isaac marries Rebecca (b. c. 2226). Death of Abra- 
ham (b. c. 2191). Jacob and Esau. Isaac blesses Jacob (b. c. 2129). 
Jacob's Vision, Stay with Laban, Wives and Children, Return to 
Canaan. Death of Isaac. Joseph is sold by his Brethren (b, c. 2096), 
is made Ruler in Egypt. Journey of the Sons of Jacob into Egypt. 
Jacob in Egypt (b. c. 2076-2059). P. 82. 

CHAPTER II. 

Moses and Josue. — b. c. 1725-15 80. 
Oppression of the Israelites in Egypt. Birth of Moses (b. c. 1725). 
Moses is commanded to deliver Israel. The Ten Plagues of Egypt. 
Institution of the Passover. Departure of the Israelites (b. c. 1645-). 
Passage of the Red Sea. The Israelites in the Desert. Giving of the 
Law at Sinai. The Golden Calf. The Tabernacle set up. The 
Wandering in the Wilderness. Death of Aaron. Death (b. c. 1605) 
and Character of Moses. Josue. Passage of the Jordan. Capture of 
Jericho ; The Sun stands still ; Conquest of the Promised Land ; 
Death of Josue (b. c. 1580). P. 93 

CHAPTER III. 
Government of the Judges. — b. c. 1 554-1050. 
Government of the Elders and Judges. Othniel and Aod. The 
Prophetess Debbora. Gedeon. Jephte. Samson. Samuel. P. 103. 



£ CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 
Saul. — David. — Solomon. — b. c. 1050-936. 

The Reign of Saul (b. c. 1050-1010). David at Jerusalem (b. C. 
1002) ; his Victories ; his Sin and Misfortunes ; his Death and Char- 
acter. Solomon's (b. c. 970-930) Power, Magnificence, and Wisdom ; 
Building of the Temple ; Other Great Works : Solomon's Idolatry and 
Death. P. 10S. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Two Separate Kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 

b. c. 930-722. 

Schism of the Ten Tribes (b. c. 930) ; Relative Population and 
Strength of Judah and Israel, Jeroboam's Idolatry. God's Worship 
maintained at Jerusalem. Ultimate Fate of the two kingdoms. Rob- 
oam (b. c. 930-914). Abias (b. c. 914-912). Asa (b. c. 912-S71). 
Josaphat (b. C. 871-S47). Achab (b. c. 875-854), king of Israel, and 
Elias ; Naboth's Vineyard. Joram, Ochoziah, Athalia, and Joas (b. c. 
S47-797). Amasiah (b. c. 797-773). Azariah (or Oziah) Joatham, and 
Achaz (b. c. 773-727). Fall of Samaria (b. c. 722). P. 112. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Last Kings of Judah. — b. c. 722-5 S 7. 

Hezekiah (b. C. 727-696). Manasses (b. c. 696-641) and Amon (b. c. 
641-639). Josiah (b. c. 639-60S). First Captivity of Judah (b. c. 605). 
The Great Captivity (b. c. 597). Destruction of Jerusalem (b. c. 587). 
P. IlS. 



PART V. 

THE CHALDEANS, ASSYRIANS AND BABYLONIANS. 

FROM THEIR ORGANIZATION AS NATIONS, TO THEIR SUBJUGATION BY 
Till: PERSIANS IN B. C. 53S. 

CHAPTER I. 

Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria, Previous to 1300 b. c. 
Geographical Position of Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, and Susiana. 
Fertility of Assyria and Babylonia. Early Civilization in the Land of 
Sennaar. The Chaldean Empire (b. c. ? -about 1500); Nimrod and 
Urukh. The Chaldeans. Primitive Assyria. Greek Legends con- 
cerning Assyria; Ninus.Semiramis, Ninyas, and Sardanapalus. Assy- 
rian Mounds; Cuneiform Inscriptions deciphered. P. 123. 

CHAPTER II. 
The Assyrian Empire.— ?b. c. 1300-606, 
Rise of the Assyrian Power. Theglathphalasar I (about b. c. 1130-. 
1 1 10). Gap in Assyrian History. Calah (now ffimrud) ; its Mounds 
and Palaces. Assurisirpal (b. c. 883-858). Salmanasar in (b. c. S58-. 
824). Jonah preaches Repentance to the Ninivites. Theglathphalazar 11 
(B. c. 745-72S). Salmanasar v (b. C. 727-722). Sargon (b. c. 722-706). 



CONTENTS. xi 

Sennacherib (b. C 705-681). Asarhaddon (b. c. 6S1-66S). The Sama- 
ritan People. Assurbanipal (b. c. 66S-626). Campaigns of Holofernes ; 
Judith and Holofernes. The Fall of Ninive (n. c. ? 606). P. 129. 

CHAPTER III. 

The Babylonian Empire. — b. c. 606-53S. 

Nabopolassar (b. c. 606-604). Nabuchodonosor (b. c. 604-561) ; His 
Great Works ; Walls and Streets of Babylon ; the Temple of Bel ; the 
Great Palace and Hanging Gardens. Chastisement, Penance, and 
Death of Nabuchodonosor. Decline of the Babylonian Empire. 
Nabonadius, Nitocris, and Baltassar (b. C. 555-53S) ; Taking of Babylon 
by Cyrus (b. c. 53S). Subsequent Fate of Babylon. P. 143. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Civilization of Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria. 
Antiquity of the Chaldean Civilization. Astronomical Science among 
the Chaldeans. Babylonian Temples ; Ziggurats and Shrines. The 
Pantheon, Priesthood, and Worship of Babylonia and Assyria. As- 
syrian Palaces. Industry, Commerce, and Agriculture. Moral deprav- 
ity. P. 151. 

PART VI. 

THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Median Monarchy. — b. c. ?— 55S. 

The Aryan, or Indo-European, Race; the Primitive Aryans; Ira- 
nians. Zoroastrianism ; Guebers and Parsis ; Magism, the Magi. The 
Medes before Cyaxares. Cyaxares (b. c. ?~593) and the Founding of 
the Median Monarchy. Degeneracy of the Medes ; their dress. 
Astyages (b. c. 593-558) and his court. P. 157. 

CHAPTER II. 
Cyrus (b. c. 55S-529) and the Founding of the Persian Empire. 

Achoemencs the First Persian King. Cyrus Dethrones Astyages (b. 
c. 558). Cyrus, King of Media and Persia. Croesus anticipates the 
Attack of Cyrus (b. C. 555). The Persians described by Herodotus. 
Dethronement of Croesus (b. c. 554). Reduction of the Ionians and 
of Central Asia (b. c. 554-538). Fall of Babylon (b. c. 538). Mono- 
theism in the Ascendant. Darius the Mede, Regent at Babylon (b. c. 
53S— 536). The Restored Jewish Nation and Church (b. c. 536). Char- 
acter of Cyrus ; Extent of his Empire. Prompt Degeneracy of the 
Persians. P. 163. 

CHAPTER III. 
Cambyses and the Magian Usurper — b. c. 529-522. 

Accession of Cambyses. Conquest of Egypt (b. c. 527). Expedi- 
tions against Ethiopia and the Ammonians. Cruel treatment of the 
Egyptians. Suicide of Cambyses. The Pseudo-Smerdis. Massacre 
of the Magians. P. 171. 



xii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

Darius i Hystas:-:s [n, c 521-486). — Climax of. the Persian 

Emf:?,z. 

Accession of Darius Hystaspis. The Behistan Inscription. Siege 
of Babylon. Edict of Darius in Favor of the Jews (B. c. 520). Organi- 
zation of the Empire. Satrapies; the I Force; the R« 
Judges and Secretaries. Darius conquers India. Scythia, Invasion 
of Scythia (B. c. f?5 . Conquest of Thrace and Macedonia (b. c. 506— 
305'. Darius at Sasa; his Character and Tomb. Persian Palaces; 
Platforms and Terraces ; Pillared Halls and Colonnades ; Persian 
Magnificence. P. 174. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Decline and Fall ;? the Persian Empire — b. c. 436-330. 

Accession of Xerxes I (b. c. 4S6). Queen Esther. Proscription 
and Rescue of the Jews. Character and Death of Xerxes (b. c. 465). 
Accession of Artaxcrxes I Longimanus. Commission of Esdras 3. c. 
45 E) '. of Xehemiah (b. c. 445 >. Covenant of the Jewish People. Char- 
acter of Artaxerxes 1. Xerxes II and Sogdianus (B. C. 425). Darius II 
Nothns. Artaxerxes II Mnemon (B. c. 405-359). Ochus (b. c. 359- 
338 . Darius Codomannns (b. c. 336-330). P. 182. 



PART VII. 

GREECE AXD MACEDOXIA. 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES, TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST IN l66 B. C. 

CHAPTER I. 
Legendary or Traditional History of Greece. 
Hellas. Geographical Sketch. Legendary Character of Early Grecian 
History. Pelasgia and the Pelasgi. The Hellenes : .Eolians and 
Achaeans, Ionians and Dorians. The Heroic Age. The Trojan War 
(?HQ4-iiS4). Homer and the Homeric !:. - ie Homeric Picture 
of Life and Manners ; Homeric Polity ; Prevailing Simplicity ; Plospi- 
tality; Freemen and Slaves; Da t Side of the Homeric Society; Ad- 
vanced State of Civilization. Dorian Occupation of Peloponnesus ; 
the Return of the Heraclidce. Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. Rise 
of Grecian Literature. P. 191. 

CHAPTER II. 

Religion and National Games of the Greeks. 

Ties which bound together the Grecian World. Grecian Deities. 

The Delphic Oracle. The Amphyctionic Council. The Olympic, 

Pythian, Xemean, and Isthmian Games. Grecian Characteristics. 

F. 200. 

CHAPTER III. 

Sparta becomes the dominant po^*er in Peloponnesus. 
Scarcity of Historical Records down to 500 B. C. Ancient Preemi- 
nence of Argos. Spa^ia before Lycurgus. Lycurgus (? B. c S90-770). 
Population of Laconia : Spartans, Fericeci, and Helots. The Spartan 



CONTENTS. xiii 

Government. Aim of Lycurgus. Training of the Spartan Youth. The 
Spartan Citizen. The Public Mess. The Spartan Women. Subjuga- 
tion of Messenia. Conquests in Arcadia and Argos. P. 204. 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Dawn of Dkmocracy. 
Abolition of Royalty, except in Sparta. Oligarchies overthrown by 
Despots. Character of the Despots. Rise of Democracy. Megarian 
Revolutions. P. 210. 

CHAPTER V. 
Athens before the Persian Wars. 
The Archonship is substituted to Royalty. The Annual Archon- 
ship (b. c. 6S3). The Senate of Areopagus. The Legislation of Draco 
(B.C. 624). Solon (B. c. ?683~55S); his Measures for the Relief of 
Debtors (b. c. 594), Constitution and Laws. Usurpation of Pisistratus 
(b. C. 560-527). Government of Hippias and Hipparchus (b. c. 527- 
510). Clisthenes establishes the Athenian Democracy B, c. 510; his 
Reforms ; Ostracism. V. 213. 

CHAPTER VI. 

The Greek Colonies founded between S00-600 b. c. 

Sybaris and Croton. Tarentum. Syracuse. Marseilles. Cyrene. 
P. 220. 

CHAPTER VII. 

Grecian Poets, Sages, and Philosophers — b. c. 750-500. 

Origin of Greek Lyric Poetry. Chief Lyric Poets between 700-500 
B. C. Archilochus, Tyrtceus, Alcman, Arion, Stesichorus, Alcreus, and 
Sappho. The Seven Sages : Solon, Thales, Periander, Pittacus, Cleo- 
bulus, Chilo, and Bias. The Ionic, Eleatic, and Pythagorean Schools 
of Philosophy: Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes and Anaxagoras ; 
Xenophanes ; Pythagoras. P. 221. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Grecian Art in the Sixth Century b. c 
Architecture of Temples. Statuary. Painting. P. 225. 

CHAPTER IX. 
The Asiatic Greeks. 

Influence of Lydia upon the Asiatic Greeks. Polycrates of Samos. 
The Asiatic Greeks and Darius. The Ionic Revolt (b. c. 501). The 
Burning of Sard is (b c. 500). Anger of Darius. Suppression of the 
Ionic Revolt. P. 226. 

CHAPTER X. 

The Persian Wars. — b. c. 490-479. 
Expedition of Mardonius into Greece (b. c. 492). Battle of Marathon 
(b. c. 490) ; its Effects upon the Athenians. Death of Miltiades. 
Aristides and Themistoclcs. Fresh Preparations of Darius. Army of 
Xerxes. Faintheartedness of the Greeks. Resolution of Athens and 
Sparta. Battle of Thermopylae (b. c. 4S0). Naval Operations. Battle 
of Salamis ; Artemisia. Mardonius reoccupiea Attica (b. c. 479). 
Battle of Platcea, of Mycale. P. 230. 



xiv CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XL 

Supremacy of Athens. — b. c. 479-431. 

Rebuilding of Athens. Treason of Pausanias. Confederacy of 
Delos. The Athenian Empire. Progress of Athenian Democracy. 
Closing years of Aristides and Themistocles. Rise of Cimon and 
Pericles. Battle at the Eurymedon (i>. C. 466). Revolt of the Helots 
(b. c. 464-455). Ineffectual Aid afforded to the Spartans by Cimon. 
Full-blown Athenian Democracy. Athenian Power at its Height (b. c. 
4C1-447). The Thirty Years' Truce (b, c. 445). Administration of 
Pericles; indirect Attacks on him. P. 238. 

CHAPTER XII. 
The Peloponnesian War — b. c. 431-404. 

Aims and Forces of the Belligerents. Invasion of Attica (b. C. 431). 
Athenian Operations. Funeral Oration by Pericles. Plague at Athens 
(b. C. 430-425). An Eclipse (b. c. 430). Death of Pericles (B. C. 429) ; his 
character. Siege of Platoea (b. C. 429-427). Atrocious Features of the 
war. Corcyrean Revolutions (b. c. 427-425). Capture of Sphacteria 
(b. C. 425). Exploits of Brasidas (b. c. 424-422). Alcibiades. War 
between Argos and Corinth (b. c. 421-416). Conquest of Melos by the 
Athenians (u. C. 416). Athenian Expedition to Sicily, and Destruction 
of the Armament before Syracuse (b. c. 415-413). The Spartans occupv 
Decelea (b. c. 413). Battle of Cyzicus (410), Arginusce (406), and 
iEgospotami (405). Fall of Athens (b. c. 404). P. 244. 

CHAPTER XIII 

The Thirty Tyrants — B. c. 404-403. 

Return of the Oligarchal Exiles. The Thirty — their Proceedings ; 
Proscriptions ; Suppression of Intellectual Culture. D ath of Alcibi- 
ades (b. C. 404). Oppressive Yoke of Sparta. Athenian Democracy 
restored (b. c. 403). P. 255. 

CHAPTER XIV. 

Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting at Athens, during the 
period of her Supremacy. 

The Monuments of Athens ; Temple of Nike", ThesGum, Tcecile, 
Stoa, Propyloea, Parthenon ; Colossal Statues of Athene. Artists of the 
Periclean Age ; Phidias, Polycletus, Polignotus Appollodorus, Zeuxis. 
P. 253. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Later Grecian Lyrists (b. c. 556-442); Athenian Dramatists 

down to 380 b. c. 
Lyric Poetry: Simonides (b. C 556-467); Pindar (? B. c. 522-442). 
Origin of Comedy and Tragedy: Thespis. The Satyric Drama. 
Tetralogies. yEschylus (b. c. 525-426). Sophocles (b. c. 495-406). 
Euripides (b. C. 480-406). The Old Comedv: Aristophanes (b. c 
444-380). P. 261 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Grecian Historians. 

Slow Rise of History among the Greeks. Herodotus (b. C 484-408). 
Thucydides (b. c. 471-401). Xenophon (b. c. 444-357). P. 266. 



CONTENTS. xv 

CHAPTER XVII. 

Grecian Education. — Rhetors and Sophists. — Socrates. 

Grecian Education. Rhetors and Sophists. Socrates (b. C. 468- 
399) — the Citizen, Philosopher, and Teacher ; his Trial and Death ; his 
Method of Teaching. P. 269. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 
Cyreian Expedition and Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — b. c. 

401-400. 
Preparations of Cyrus. — Battle of Cunaxa (b. c. 401). Retreat of the 
Ten Thousand. Results of the Cyreian Expedition. P. 274, 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Spartan Supremacy. — b. c. 405-371. 

The Spartan Empire. Spartan Degeneracy. Agesilaus in Asia (B. 
C. 396-394). Corinthian War; Battle of Cnidus (b. c. 394). Peace of 
Antalcidas (b. c. 387). Seizure of the Cadmea (b. c. 383). The Lace- 
daemonians expelled by Pelopidas (b. C. 379). P. 276. 

CHAPTER XX. 

Theban Supremacy. — b. c. 371-362. 

Epaminondas (b. c. 441-362). Success of the Thehans (b. c. 37S— 
371). Congress at Sparta (b. c. 371). Battle of Leuctra (n. c 371). 
Invasions of Peloponnesus (b. c. 371-361). Battle of Mantinea; 
Death of Epaminondas (b. C 362). P. 279. 

CHAPTER XXI. 

Greece after the Theban War. 

Collapse of the Theban Power. Sparta ; Death of Agesilaus. 
Athens. P. 282. 

CHAPTER XXII. 
Philip ii of Macedon. — b. c. 359-336. 

Macedonia and its Inhabitants. Origin of the Monarchy. Char- 
acter of Philip 11; Capture of Amphipolis (b. c. 358) and Potidrea 
(B. C 356); Foundation of Philippi (B. C. 356). The Social (b. c. 357- 
355) and the Sacred (b. c. 357-346) War. Demosthenes (b. c. 382-322) — 
the Student, Orator, and Statesman. Phocion. Fall of Olynthus (b. c. 
347). End of the Sacred War (b. c. 346). Battle of Choeronea (b. c. 
338). Philip's Literary Attainments; Illustrative Anecdotes. P. 283. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 
Alexander the Great. — b. c. 336-323. 

Alexander's Education, first Exploits and Accession. Diogenes. 
Destruction of Thebes (b. c. 335). Alexander, Demosthenes, and 
Phocion. Darius in Codomannus; Persian Policy. Battle of the 
Granicus (b. C. 334). The Gordian Knot. Alexander's Illness. Battle 
of Issus (b. c. 333). Capture of Tyre and Gaza (b. c. 332). Alexander 
and the Jews. Alexander in Egypt (b. C. 332); Alexandria; the Oracle 
of Ammon. Proposals of Darius. Battle of Arbela (b. c. 331). Death 
of Darius (b. c. 330). Further Conquests (b. c. 330-328). Invasion of 



xvi CONTENTS. 

India (b. c. 327-326). Homeward March (b. c. 326-325). Alexander 
at Susa (b. c. 325), at Babylon (b. C. 324-323) ; his Death and Character. 
Beneficial Results. P. 290. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus. — b. c. 

323-301. 
A Period of Anarchy (b. C. 323-315). Coalition against Antigonus 
(b. c. 31 5-31 i). Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens (b. c. 307). Battle 
of Salamis (b. c. 306). Siege of Rhodes (b. c. 305) ; the Colossus ; 
Protogenes. Military Engines of the Ancients : the Aries, Scorpio, 
Catapulta, and Balista; the Vinea, Musculi, and Testudines. Battle of 
Ipsus (b. C. 301). The Four Kingdoms of Egypt, Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Syria. P. 302. 

CHAPTER XXV. 
Egypt under the Ptolemies. — b. c. 323-222. 
Ptolemy I Soter (b. C. 323-285). Ptolemy n Philadelphus (b. C. 
285-247). Ptolemy ill Evergetes (b. c. 247-222). Ptolemy IV Philo- 
pator. P. 306. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
Syria under the Seleucid^e. 

Seleucus I Nicator (b. c. 312-280). Extinction of the Kingdom of 
Thrace (b. c. 281). Antiochus I Soter (b. c. 2S0-261). Antiochus 11 
Theos (r. c. 261-247). Rise of the Parthian Empire (b. c. 250). Se- 
leucus Callinicus (b. C. 246-226). Seleucus Ceraunus (b. C. 226-223). 
Antiochus III the Great (b. C. 228-187). Antiochus IV Epiphanes (b. c. 
175-164). P. 307. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 
Jewish Independence. — b. c. 168-106. 

Persecution of the Jews (b. c. 168). Revolt of Mathathias (b. c. 168). 
Exploits of Judas Maccabeus (b. C. 167-161); Recovery of Jerusalem 
(b. c. 166). Death of Antiochus iv Epiphanes (b. c. 164). Fresh Vic- 
tories of Maccabeus; his Death (B. c. 161). Jonathan (b. c. 153-143). 
Simon (b. c. 143-135). John Hyrcanus (b. c. 135-106). P. 310. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
Macedonia and Greece. — 310-1S3. 

Revolutions in Macedonia (b. c. 301-277). Invasion of the Celts (b. c. 
280-279). Antigonus Gonatas (b. c. 277-239). The Achrean League ; 
Aratus ; Constitution of the League ; Agis iv (b. c. 254-240). Cleomenes 
attacks the League (b. c. 225-221) ; Battle of Sellasia (b. c. 221). The 
./Etolians. Wa* between the ^Etolian and the Achcean League. Philo- 
pcemen (b. c. 253-183). Battle of Mantincea (b. c. 207). Sparta joins 
the Achoean League (b. c. 191). Disinterestedness of Philopoemen. P. 
313. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 
Last Period of the Grecian Art. 

Sculpture: Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus. Painting: Apelles. 
Later Schools of Art. I Architecture. Plunder of Greek Works of Art 
by the Romans. P. 319. 



CONTENTS. *vil 

CHAPTER XXX. 

The New Comedy — Athenian Oratory and Philosophy. 

The New Comedy: Menander (b. c. 342-280). Athenian Oratory. 
Attic Orators: Antiphon (b. c. 480-411). Lysias, Isocrates, Isreus, 
^schines, and Demosthenes. Academicians : Plato (b. c. 429-347). 
The Peripatetics : Aristotle (b. c. 384-322). The Stoics : Zeno. The 
Epicureans: Epicurus (1?. C. 342-270). The Alexandrian School. P. 
321. 



PART VIII. 

HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME. 

CHAPTER I. 
The Monarchy. — b. c. 753-509. 
Inhabitants of Italy ; Population of Rome. The Early Roman His- 
tory Unreliable. ^Eneas and Ascanius. Birth of Romulus and Remus. 
Foundation of Rome (b. c. 753). Rape of the Sabines. Victories of 
Romulus. Tarpeia. The Cures settle on the Quirinal. Death of 
Romulus. Patricians and Clients ; the Comitia Curiata ; the Senate 
and the Army. Numa Pompilius (b. C. 716-673). Pontiffs, Augurs, 
Flamens, Vestal Virgins, and Salii ; Temple of Janus. Tullus Hostil- 
ius (b. c. 671-641) ; the Horatii and Curiatii ; Trial of Horatius ; Des- 
truction of Alba Longa — the Plebs. Ancus Martius (b. c. 640-616): 
the Fetiales, Pons Sublicius, and Ostia. Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (b. 
c. 616-578) : his Victories, Great Works, and Institutions. Servius Tul- 
lius(B. c. 578-534): his Wall; Political Reforms ; the Comitia Tributa; 
the Comitia Centuriata ; his Tragic Death. Lucius Tarquinius Super- 
bus (b. c. 534-509) ; the Capitol ; the Sibylline Books ; Capture of 
Gabii ; Brutus at Delphi. End of the Monarchy (b. c. 509). P. 328. 

CHAPTER II. 

Tarquin's Efforts to Regain the Throne. — b. c. 509-498. 
The Consuls. Brutus puts down a Conspiracy ; his Death. Va- 
lerius Publicola. Horatius Codes ; Mucius Sccevola ; Cloelia. Tarquin 
raises Fresh Enemies. The First Dictator. Battle of Lake Regillus ; 
(b. c. 698). Death of Tarquin. P. 344. 

CHAPTER III. 

Struggle between Patricians and Plebeians. — b. c. 496-452. 
Coriolanus — The Fabii — Cincinnatus. 

Poverty of the Plebeians. Law of Debtor and Creditor. Secession 
to the Sacred Mount (b. c. 494). The Fable of the Belly and the Mem- 
bers. Institution of Two Plebeian Tribunes, of Ediles. The Public 
Land ; the first Agrarian Law (b. c. 486) ; Fate of Spurius Cassius. 
Coriolanus and the Volscians (? B. C 488). The Fabii and the Veien- 
tines (b. c. 477). Fresh Concessions to the Plebeians : the Publilian 
and the Icilian Law. Impeachment of Appius Claudius. Cincin- 
natus and the /Equians (b. c. 458). P. 347. 



xviii CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER IV. 

The Decemvirate. — Military Tribunate and Censorship. — 

Plebeian Questors. — b. c. 452-421. 

The Terentilian Law (b. c. 452). The Decemvirs (b. c. 450-448) : 
Appius Claudius ; Sicinius Dentatus ; Virginia. The Valerian and 
Horatian Laws (b. c. 448). Intermarriage Law (b. c. 445). The Con- 
sular Tribunes (b. c. 444-366). The Censors. Spurius Maelius. Aulus 
Postumius, Dictator. Plebeian Questors (b. c. 421) ; Questorship. 

P- 354- 

CHAPTER V. 

Capture of Veil — Gallic Inroads. — The Licinian Rogations. — 

b. c. 406-365. 

Veii : Siege and Capture of Veii (b. c. 406-396). Camillus conquers 
Falerii (b. c. 394) ; is driven into Exile (b. c. 391). Battle of the Allia 
(b. C. 390). Sack of Rome ; Siege of the Capitol ; Withdrawal of the 
Gauls. Rebuilding of the City ; Distress at Rome. Fate of Manlius 
Capitolinus (b. c. 384). The Licinian Rogations (b. c. 377-367) ; L. 
Sextius, first Plebeian Consul. The Pretorship (b. c. 366). Death of 
Camillus (b. c. 365). Mettus Curtius. P. 361. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Wars with the Gauls, the Samnites, and the Latins. — The 
Roman Democracy. — b. c. 421-287. 
" Gallic Tumult." — Manlius Torquatus (b. c. 361) ; Valerius Corvus 
(b. c. 349) ; the Latin League. Samnites at Capua. First Samnite 
War (b. c. 343-341) ; Concessions to the Plebeians (b. c. 341-339). Ple- 
biscita. Demands of the Latins; The Latin War (b. c. 340-338); 
Self-devotion of Decius; Subjugation and Settlement of Latium. 
Origin of the Second Samnite War (b. c. 327) ; the First Proconsul ; 
Papirius and Fabius (b. c. 324) ; the Caudine Forks (b. c. 321) ; Subju- 
gation of Samnium (b. C. 290) ; Curius Dentatus. Conquests in Etruria 
and Cisalpine Gaul. Appius Claudius Coecus, the Censor (b. c. 312- 
311). Flavius publishes the Forms of Legal Action. The Ogulnian 
and thellortensian Law (b. c. 287). P. 368. 

CHAPTER VII. 
War with Pyrrhus and Subjugation of Southern Italy. 

b. c. 281-272. 

Origin of the War with Tarentum (b. c. 281). Intervention of 
Pyrrhus : Battle of Heraclea (b. C 280) ; Embassy of Cineas ; of Fa- 
bricius ; Battle of Asculum (b. c. 279) ; Truce («. c. 27S) ; Pyrrhus in 
Sicily (b. c. 278-276) ; his Despondency, Withdrawal from Italy (b. c. 
274), and Death (b. c. 272). Rome Mistress of Italy. P. 378. 

CHAPTER VIII. 
The Roman Citizens — the People of the Latin Name — and 

the Allies. 
Roman Citizens ; Urban and Suburban Tribes ; Roman Citizenship; 
Roman and Latin Colonies. The Allies ; their Duties and Rights. 
Roman Roads. P. 383. 



CONTENTS. xix 

CHAPTER IX. 

The Roman Army. 
The Legionary ; the Drill ; Personal Baggage. The Roman Legion ; 
Equipment ; Order of Battle. The Auxiliary Troops. A Consular 
Army. The Roman Camp. Discipline. P. 389. 

CHAPTER X. 

Carthage. — Her Conquests in Sicily. 
Her Commerce, Character, Religion, Government, Military Organi- 
zation, and Conquests. Siege of Himera (b. C. 480) ; Defeat of Hamil- 
car. Gelon, king of Syracuse (b. C. 480-473). Carthaginian Conquests 
in Sicily. Dionysius, Tyrant of Syracuse (b. c. 405-368), defeats Himil- 
co, and is defeated by Mago. Victories of Timoleon (b. c. 345-343). 
Agathocles and the Carthaginians (b. c. 317-289). P. 391. 

CHAPTER XI. 

First Punic War. — b. c. 264-241. 

Polybius (b. c. 204-122). Remote Cause of the War. The Mamer- 
tines aided by Rome. Successes of the Romans in Sicily ; they build 
a fleet ; Naval Victory of Duilius (b. c. 260) ; Battle of Ecnomus (b. c. 
256). The Bagrada Serpent; Regulus in Africa; Xantippus at Car- 
thage ; Embassy of Regulus (b. c. 250). Roman Fleets destroyed by 
Storms. Battle of Panormus (b. C. 250). Siege of Lilybceum (b. c. 250- 
241). Battle of Drepanum (b. c. 249). A Roman Fleet wrecked. 
Successes of Hamilcar Barca (b. c. 247-241).) Battle off the /Egatian 
Islands. End of the War (b. c. 241). P. 396. 

CHAPTER XII. 
Between the First and the Second Punic War.' — b. c. 240-210. 

Roman Occupation of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica. Temple of 
Janus closed in 235 b. c. Conquest of Corcyra (b. c. 229). Battle of 
Telamon (b. c. 225). Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul (b. c. 225-222). 
Revolt of the Carthaginian Mercenaries (b. c. 240-238). Hamilcar's 
Hatred of Rome. Spain — Hamilcar in Spain (b. c. 235-225) ; Hasdru- 
bal (225-221). Hannibal placed in Command of the Carthaginians in 
Spain (b. c. 221); takes Saguntum (b. c. 219). The Romans declare 
War (b. c. 219). P. 403. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
Second Punic War. — b. c. 218-201. 

Hannibal sets out for Italy (b. c. 218). Movements of the Romans. 
Skirmish on the Ticinus; Battle of the Trebia (b. c. 218), and 
near Lake Trasimenus (b. C 217). Fabius Ciinctator ; Plannibal's 
Stratagem. — Battle of Cannae (b. c. 216) ; Roman Fortitude. Hanni- 
bal's Inactivity ; he vainly awaits Reinforcements ; Hannibal at Capua 
(b. c. 216-215); Cause of his failure; he stirs up Fresh Enemies; 
Campaigns of b. c. 215-212. Syracuse defended by Archimedes. 
Storming of Syracuse (b. c. 211). Death of Archimedes. Spoils of 
Syracuse. Recoveiy of Capua (b. c. 211). Roman Alliances. The 
War in Spain (b. c. 218-212). Youth of P. Scipio Africanus ; Africanus 
in Spain (210-206). Defeat of Marcellus (b. c. 208). Hasdrubal's 
March into Italy (b. c. 208-207) J Battle of the Metaurus (b. c. 207). 
Scipio in Africa (b. c. 204-203) ; Recall of Hannibal (b. c. 203) ; Battle 



xx CONTENTS. 

of Zama (b. c. 202). End of the War. Triumph of Scipio (b. c. 201). 
Last years of Hannibal ; his Death (b. c. 183). Causes of the Success 
of the Romans. P. 410. 

CHAPTER XIV. 
The Romans Commence the Conquest of the East. — b. c. 200-188. 
War with Philip v-of Macedon ; Battle of Cynoscephalce (b. c. 197). 
Declaration of Grecian Independence (b. C. 196). War with Anti- 
ochus (b. c. 191) ; the Romans in Asia ; Battle of Magnesia (b. c. 190). 
Last Years and Death (b. c. 183) of Africanus. Subjugation of the 
yEtolian League, and Galatian War (b. c. 189). Settlement of Asia 
Minor (b. c. 188). P. 425. 

CHAPTER XV. 

Wars with the Cisalpine Gauls, the Ligurians, Spaniards, 
Sardinians, and Istrians. — b. c. 200-175. 
Cisalpine Gaul made a Province (b. c. 191). The Ligurian War. 
Two Provinces formed in Spain (b. c. 198) ; War in Spain (b. c. 197) ; 
Victories of Cato (b. c. 195) ; End of the Spanish War (b. c. 179). War 
in Istria (b. c. 178) ; in Sardinia and Corsica (b. c. 177-175). P. 429. 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Cato the Censor (b. c. 234-149). 
Cato's Youth, Pretorship, Consulship and Censorship ; his Punish- 
ment of Flaminius — Character. P. 431. 

CHAPTER XVII. 
Fall of Macedon, Greece, and Carthage. — b. c. 1 71-146. 
Accession of Perseus of Macedon (b. c. 179); Conquest of Macedon 
(B.C. 171-16S); Macedonia a Roman Province (b. C. 151). Arbitrary 
Conduct of Rome. Treatment of the Achceans ; Achcean Hostages 
(b. c. 167-151) ; the Achcean War (b. c. 147-146); Sack of Corinth (b. 
C. 146) ; Province of Achaia. Origin of the Third Punic War. — 
Delenda est Carthago; Roman Deceit; Preparations of the Cartha- 
ginians ; Siege and Destruction of Carthage (b. c. 149-146) ; its Later 
History ; Recent Excavations. P. 434. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Wars in Spain (b. c. 153-133). — First Servile War (b. c. 134- 
132).— The Province of Asia (b. c. 129). 

War with the Celtiberians (b. c. 153-152); Massacre of the Lusita- 
nians (b. c. 150) ; Viriathus (b. c. 150-140). The Numantine War (b. c. 
144-133); Revival of Discipline; Destruction of Numantia. Servile 
War in Sicily (b. c. 134-132). Formation of the Province of Asia (b. 
c. 129) ; Pergamus. P. 440. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

Government of the Provinces. — Moral Decadence. — The New 
Nobility. — Pauperism. 
Extent of the Roman Dominion. Administration of the Provinces ; 
Revenues ; Proconsuls and Propretors. Internal Corruption. Daily 
Life of a noble Roman, The Knights, Nobles, Senators, Lower Clas- 
ses. Political Assemblies ; their Functions. Senatus Consulta. P. 444. 



CONTENTS. xxi 

CHAPTER XX. 

The Agrarian Laws of the Gracchi.— -b. c. i 33-1 21. 
The Monopolizing of the Land; Decay of the Free Population. 
Youth of the Gracchi ; Tiberius elected Tribune (rs. c. 133) ; his Agra- 
rian Law; his Death (b. c. 133). Death of the Younger Africanus (b. 
c. 120); his Character. Impeachment of Caius Gracchus ; his Popu- 
larity ; he weakens the Senate; the Knights made Judges — Ordo 
Equestris. Abortive Attempt to benefit the Latins and Allies. The 
Popularity of C. Gracchus undermined ; his Death and Character. 
Honors paid to the Gracchi — Cornelia. The Agrarian Laws rendered 
Inoperative. P. 450. 

CHAPTER XXI. 
The Jugtjrthan War (b. c. 111-106). — Marius. — The Cimbri and 

the Teutones. 
Jugurtha, King of Numidia ; comes to Rome (b. c. iio); defeats the 
Romans ; is defeated by Metellus (b. c. 109). Rise of Caius Marius ; 
he is elected Consul (b. c. 108) ; enlists the Proletarians ; ends the 
Jugurthan War (b. c. 107-106). Settlement of Africa. Early Career 
of Sulla. Victories of the Cimbri (b. c. 113-105). Restoration of 
Discipline. Battle of Aquoe Sextine (b. c. 102), of Vercellre (b. c. ioi). 
Second Servile War (b. c. 103-101). P. 458. 

CHAPTER XXII. 

Saturntnus and Glaucia. — The Social, or Marsic, War. 

b. c. 100-89. 

Sixth Consulship of Marius (b. C. 100). Saturninus is put to Death 
as a Public Enemy (b. c. 100). Origin of the Social, or Marsic, War. 
The Allies take up Arms (b. c. 90) ; Extension of the Franchise and 
Cost of the War. P. 465. 

CHAPTER XXIII. 

The First Civil (b. c. 83-86), and the First Mithridatic (b. c. 

88-84), War. 
First Consulship of Sulla (rs. c. 88).) The Kingdom of Pontus ; 
Mithridates VI. Beginning of the First Civil War (b. c. SS) ; Adven- 
tures of Marius ; Riots at Rome and Proscription (b. c. 87-86) ; Death 
of Marius (b. c. 86). Sulla's Victories in the East (b. c. 87-83). P. 468. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 
The Second Civil War (b. c. 8 3-8 2) .—Sulla's Dictatorship, 
Legislation, and Death (b, c. 81-78.) 
Sulla's Return (b. c. 83) ; his Victories (b. c. 83-82), Proscription, 
Dictatorship (b. C. 81-79), anc ^ Funeral (b. c. 78). P. 473. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

War with Sertorius, Start acus, the Pirates, and Mithridates. — 

b. c. 79-61. — pompey — crassus — lucullus. 

First Exploits of Pompey (b. c. 82-80) ; Tompey and the Nobles 

(b. c. 79-77). Sertorius in Spain ; Pompey ends the ^Var in Spain 

(b. c. 76-72). Spartacus ; War of the Gladiators (b. c. 73-71) ; Cras- 



xxii CONTENTS. 

sus. Pompey and Crassus Consuls (b. c. 70). The Gabinian Law J 
The Pirates crushed by Pompey (b. c. 67). The Second Mithridatic 
War (b. c. 83-82). Preparations of Mithridates ; the Third Mithri- 
datic War (b. c. 74); Siege of Cyzicus (b. c. 73) ; Mithridates expelled 
from Pontus (b. c. 72) ; Tigranes ; Settlement of Asia (b. c. 70) ; Battle 
of Tigranocerta (b. c. 69), of Artaxata (b. c. 68) ; Mithridates reenters 
Pontus (b. c. 68). Recall of Lucullus (b. c. 67) ; Manilian Law ; 
End of the Mithridatic War (b. c. 66-63). Roman Supremacy ex- 
tended over Syria, Phoenicia, Ccelesyria, and Palestine (b. c. 62). 
P. 476. 

CHAPTER XXVI. 
Cicero — Verres — Catiline — Cato. 
Cicero's Early Life. Verres; his Impeachment (b. c. 70). Cicero's 
Oratorical Preeminence. Catiline. Consulship of Cicero (b. c. 63) ; 
the Conspiracy of Catiline (b. C. 63) ; the First Speech against Catiline ; 
Execution of his Accomplices (Dec. 5) ; his Death (b. c. 62). Cicero's 
Popularity ; his Subsequent Political Career. Cato (b. c. 95-46), as a 
Roman, a Soldier, and a Public Man. P. 486. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

Julius Caesar. — The First Triumvirate. — Banishment and Recall 

of Cicero. 
Early Career of Julius Ccesar ; he courts Popularity (b. c. 68-63) J 
impeaches Rabirius, and becomes Chief Pontiff (b. c. 63). Profanation 
of Sacred Rites by Clodius (b. C. 62.) Pompey's Great Triumph, 
Sept., 61 B. C. Ccesar' s First Military Command (b. c 61-60). First 
Triumvirate (b. c. 60). Consulship of Ccesar (b. c. 59). Clodius 
elected Tribune (b. C 58). Banishment of Cicero (b. c. 58) ; Riots at 
Rome ; Clodius and Milo. Return of Cicero (b. c. 57). P. 495. 

CHAPTER XXVIII. 
Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul. b. c. 58-50. 

Ccesar' s Object ; he beats off the Helvetii and Suevi (b. c. 58). The 
Belgic War (b. c. 57). Subjugation of the Western Tribes (b. c. 56). 
Invasion of Germany and Britain (B.C. 55-54). Revolt in the North- 
east of Gaul (b. c. 54). Ccesar' s Sixth Campaign (b. c. 53). Central 
Gaul Revolts under Vercingetorix (b. C. 52); Siege of Avaricum, Ger- 
govia, and Alesia (b. c. 52). The Pacification of Gaul (b. c. 51-50). 
P. 502. 

CHAPTER XXIX. 

Expedition of Crassus against the Parthians (b. c. 54-52.) — 

Anarchy in the city. 

The Triumvirs at Lucca (b. C. 56). Second Consulship of Pompey 
and Crassus (b. c. 55). Crassus sets out for Syria (b. c. 54) ; twice 
crosses the Euphrates (b. c. 54-53) ; is defeated and slain near Carrhce 
(b. c. 53). Ccesar's Popularity ; jealousy of the Nobles ; Pompey's 
Vexation. Anarchy in Rome (b. c. 53-52) ; Clodius is slain by Milo 
b. c. 52) ; Pompey Sole Consul (b. c. 52) ; Trial of Milo (b. c. 52). 
Cicero Proconsul in Cilicia (b. c. 51). Ccesar's Danger and Demands 
(B. C. 50) ; Measures against him (b. C. 49). P. 508. 



CONTENTS. xxiii 

CHAPTER XXX. 

From the Beginning of the Civil War to the Death of 
caesar. — b. c. 49-44. 
Pompey's Remissness and Caesar's Power. Caesar crosses the Rubi- 
con (b. C. 49). Pompey's Retreat to Brundusium. Caesar Master of 
Rome and Italy. Pompey's Policy. Caesar in Spain. A Regular 
Government restored at Rome. Operations against Pompey ; Battle of 
Pharsalia (b. C. 48) ; Pompey flies to Egypt — his Death (b. c. 48). The 
Alexandrine War (b. C. 48-47). Caesar defeats Pharnaces (b. c. 47). 
Battle of Thapsus (b. c. 46) ; Death of Cato. Honors conferred on 
Caesar. The Julian Calendar. Battle of Munda (b. c. 45). Caesar's 
Last Triumph (c. c. 45) ; he becomes Supreme ; Use he made of his 
Power. Conspiracy against his Life ; his Assassination (b. c. 44) — 
Character. P. 514. 

CHAPTER XXXI. 

The End of the Republic. — b. c. 44-31. 
Proceedings of the Conspirators ; of Antony. Caesar's Will and 
Funeral. Antony Supreme in the City. Rise of Caius Octavius. 
Movements of the Conspirators. The First Philippic. Octavius raises 
Troops. The Second Philippic. Cicero's Proud Position at Rome. 
Battle of Mutina (b. c. 43). Octavius seizes the Consulship ; Second 
Triumvirate. Murder of Cicero. Battle of Philippi (b. c. 42). Horace 
at Philippi. Agrippa and Maecenas ; Messala and Pollio. Sextus 
Pompey's Maritime Power; Agrippa crushes Sextus (b. C. 36). Dis- 
grace of Lepidus (b. c. 36). Antony in Parthia (b. c. 36) ; Antony and 
Cleopatra at Alexandria (b, c. 34-32). Octavius at Rome. Antony's 
Warlike Preparations. War against Cleopatra (b. c. 31). Forces of 
the Belligerents; Battle of Actium (b. C. 31). Octavius quells a 
Mutiny (b. c. 30). Cleopatra's Schemes of Defence. Death of Antony 
and Cleopatra. P. 524. 

CHAPTER XXXII. 

The Roman Empire under Augustus.— b. c. 31 — a. d. 14. 
Octavius becomes Emperor (b. c. 29) ; Conciliates both the Nobles 
and the Populace; receives the Name of Augustus (b. C. 27), of Father 
of his Country; his Simplicity; a Patron of Letters; his Clemency. 
The Imperial and the Senatorial Provinces ; the Legions, the Navy, 
the Pretorian Guard. Population. Embellishment of Rome. Augustus 
in Spain (b. c. 24) ; in the East (b. c. 21). Victories over the Germans 
and Pannonians (b. c. 15-6). — Birth of Christ (a. m. 4963; a. u. c. 
753). — The Imperial Family ; Livia and her Sons. Insurrection in 
Pannonia (a. d. 6-9). Varus and Arminius (A. D. 9). Closing Years 
of Augustus ; his 'Acts' and Death (A. d. 14). P. 537. 

CHAPTER XXXIII. 
The Reign of Tiberius Oesar. — a. d. 14-37. 
Accession of Tiberius. Discontent of the Legions. Campaigns of 
Germanicus (a. D. 14-16). Death of Arminius ; of Germanicus (a. d. 
19). Tiberius at Capreae (A. D. 27-37). Law of Majesty ; the Inform- 
ers. — Preaching and Death of Christ ; Diffusion of the Gospel. — 
Death and Character of Tiberius. Prosperity of the Empire. P. 545. 



xxiv CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER XXXIV. 
Caius Caligula— Claudius—Nero.— a. d. 37-68. 
Caligula's Prodigality and Cruelty, Military Expeditions, Insolence 
to the" Nobles, and Death. Accession (a. d. 41) and Character of 
Claudius ; Conquests in Britain (a. d. 43-51). — Caractacus ; Herod 
Agrippa (a. d. 43-44) — the Jews ; Last Years and Death (A. D. 54) of Clau- 
dius ; Agrippina. Favorable Promise of Nero's Reign ; Murder of Britan- 
nicus (a. d. 55), Agrippina (a. d. 59), and Octavia (a. d. 65) ; Poppcea. 
Nero a Tyrant and a Buffoon. Slaughter of the Druids in Mona (a. d. 
61) ; Boadiccea ; Subjugation of the Southern Britons (a. d. 61). Great 
Fire of Rome (a. d. 64) ; First General Persecution (a. d. 64-68). 
Death of Nero (a. d. 68). P. 550. 

CHAPTER XXXV. 

Galea— Otho— and Vitellius. — Vespasian — Titus — Domitian. 

a. d. 68-96. 

Galba, Otho, and Vitellius ; Gluttony of the Lattei\ Vespasian 
proclaimed in Syria (July, 69) ; Victories of Primus ; Death of Vitel- 
lius (Dec, 69). Revolt of the Jews (a. d. 66-70) ; Destruction of Jeru- 
salem by Titus (a. d. 70). Government and Character of Vespasian. 
Pleasing Character of Titus (A. D. 79-81.) Destruction of Herculaneum 
and Pompeii (a. D. 79). Domitian's Campaigns. Agricola in Britain 
(a. d. 78-84). Exactions and Cruelties of Domitian. Second Persecu- 
tion (a. d. 93-96). Assassination of Domitian (a. d. 96). P. 559. 

CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Nerva — Trajan — Hadrian — Antoninus Pius — Marcus Aurelius. — 

a. d. 96-180. 
Reign of Nerva (A. D. 96-98). Qualities of Trajan ; his Campaigns 
in Dacia (a. d. 101-105), Public Works, Expedition to the East (A. D. 
114-116). The Christians : Third Persecution. Hadrian's (A. D. 117- 
138) Government; Great Works. The Caledonians. The Picts and 
Scots. The Last Jewish Revolt (A. D. 133-136); Subsequent Fortunes 
of the Jews. Hadrian and the Christians. Character of Antoninus 
Pius (a. d. 1 38-161) — a Protector of the Christians, a Friend of Peace. 
Geography. The Reign of Marcus Aurelius (A. D. 161-180) an Un- 
ceasing Warfare. The Parthian War and the Fourth Persecution 
(a. d. 166). War on the Northern Frontier (A. D. 167-180) ; the 
Thundering Legion (a. d. 174). The Empire and the Barbarians. 
Stoicism and Christianity. P. 567. 

CHAPTER XXXVII. 

Com.modus — Pertinax — Septimius Severus — Caracalla — Macrinus 
— Heliogabalus — Alexander Severus — a. d. 180-235. 
Reign of Commodus (a. d. 180-192); of Pertinax (a. D. 193). The 
Empire offered for Sale. Septimius Severus and his Competitors 
(A. D. 193-197). Fifth Persecution (A. D. 201-21 1). Despotism, Wars, 
and Death of Severus. Caracalla (a. d. 211-217). Macrinus (a. d. 
217-218). Changes Political, Social, and Religious since Augustus. 
Heliogabalus (a. d. 2^8-222). Amiable Character and Government of 
Alexander Severus (A. D. 222-235). Rise of the Second Persian Em- 
pire (a. d. 226). Death of Alexander. P. 576. 



CONTENTS. xxv 

CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Advance of the Barbarians. — Rapid Succession of Emperors. — 

a. d. 235-284. 

The Franks, Allemanni, and Goths. Reign of Maximin I (A. D. 235- 
238); 6th Persecution. Gordian (a. d. 238-244). Philip (a. d. 244- 
249). Decius (a. d. 249-251) ; 7th Persecution. Gallus (a. d. 251-253) 
and JEmilian (A. D. 253). Valerian (a. D. 253-260); 8th Persecution. 
Gallienus (A. D. 260-26S) ; the ' Thirty Tyrants. ' Claudius II (A. d. 
268-270). Aurelian (a. D. 270-275) defeats Zenobia ; his Government 
and Death. 9th Persecution (a. d. 274). The Wall of Aurelian ; Or- 
leans. Tacitus (A. d. 275-276). Probus (a. d. 276-282). Cams (a. d. 
282-283), Numerian and Carinus (A. D. 283-284). P. 582. 

CHAPTER XXXIX. 

Diocletian and Maximian — Constantius Chlorus and 

Galerius. — a. d. 284-311. 

Scheme of Diocletian to knit the Empire : Two Augusti and two 
Ccesars. Tenth Persecution (A. D. 303-313): Chastisement of the Per- 
secutors. Mild Rule of Constantius Chlorus. Constantine at the 
Court of Galerius — succeeds his father, as Caesar (A. D. 306). Burden 
of Imperial Taxation. The Bagaudre. P. 588 

CHAPTER XL. 

Constantine the Great. — a. d. 311-337. 
Anarchy ; 4 Augusti. The Labarum. Battle of the Milvian Bridge 
(A. d. 312). Edict of Milan (a. d. 313.) Licinius Emperor of the 
East. Civil Observance of Sunday (a. d. 321). Constantine Sole 
Emperor (a. d. 323) — the Protector of the Christians. Council of Nice 
(a. d. 325). Faults and Domestic Unhappiness of Constantine. 
Foundation of Constantinople (a. d. 330). Character of Constantine 
the Great. P. 591. 

CHAPTER XLI. 

Constantius — Julian — Jovian — Valentinian — Valens. — 
A - d. 337-378. 
Accession of Constantine, Constantius, and Constans (a. d. 337). 
Constantius Sole Emperor (a. d. 353-361) — persecutes the Orthodox 
Believers. St. Athanasius. Pope Liberius. Julian in Gaul ; his revolt 
(a. d. 361) ; his Apostacy, and Attempt to Rebuild the Temple of Je- 
rusalem ; his Invasion of Persia and Death (a. D. 363). Jovian (a. n. 363- 
364). Valentinian (a. d. 364-375) and Valens (a. d. 364-378). Gratian 
(A. d. 375-383). St. Ambrose and Symmachus. Valens a Favorer of 
Arianism. Conversion of the Goths. Death of Valens (a. d. 378). 
The Visigoths embrace Arianism. P. 595. 

CHAPTER XLII. 

Theodosius the Great. — a. d. 378-395. 

Accession of Valentinian II and Theodosius (a. d. 378). Victories 

of Theodosius ; his Good Government. Usurpation of Maximus (a. d. 

383) ; his Death (a. D. 388). Theodosius and Flavian (a. d. 387). 

Theodosius and St. Ambrose (A. d. 390), Valentinian II is slain by 



xxvi CONTENTS. 

Arbogastes (A. D. 392). Accession of Eugenius (A. D. 392) ; his Over- 
throw (A. d. 394). Theodosius associates his Sons with himself, and 
dies (a. d. 395). His Character. P. 602. 

CHAPTER XLIII. 

The Western Empire under Honorius. — A. d. 395-424. 
Victories of Stilicho (A. D. 396-406). Gaul and Spain occupied by 
the Barbarians (A. D. 406-409). The Sack of Rome by Alaric (A. D. 
410). Final Overthrow of the Pagan Religion. Kingdom of the 
Visigoths. Ravages of the Picts and Scots in Britain. Irish Inroads 
into Britain and Gaul. Last Years of Honorius. P. 606. 

CHAPTER XLIV. 

The Eastern Empire under Arcadius, Theodosius 11, Marcian, 
and Leo I.— a. d. 395-475- 

Reign of Arcadius (a. d. 395-408). Theodosius II the Younger (A. D. 
408-450). Marcian (a. D. 450-457) and Pulcheria. Leo (a. D. 457- 
475). P. 610. 

CHAPTER XLV. 
Fall of the Western Empire. — a. d. 424-476. 

Accession of Valentinian HI (a. d. 424). Scheme of Aetius to ruin 
Bonifacius; Bonifacius calls Genseric into Africa (A. D. 428); Boni- 
facius and Aetius appeal to Arms (A. D. 432). Victories of Aetius. 
Attila and the Huns. Aetius saves Orleans (a. d. 450) ; defeats Attila 
at Chalons (a. D. 451). Attila and St. Leo (A. D. 452). Death of 
Aetius (A. D. 454) and of Valentinian HI (A. D. 455). Rome sacked 
by the Vandals under Genseric (a. d. 455). Odoacer destroys the 
Western Empire (a. d. 476). P. 612. 

CHAPTER XLVI. 

Roman Literature. 
The Oldest Roman Poets i Livius Andronicus, Ncevius, Ennius. 
Poets of the Golden Age anterior to Augustus : Plautus, Terence, 
Lucretius, and Catullus. Prose Writers before Augustus : Cato, Cicero, 
Varro, Cresar, Sallust, Nepos. Augustan Writers: Virgil, Horace, 
Tibullus, Ovid, and Livy. Post-Augustan Writers: Juvenal, Tacitus; 
Lucan, Quintilian, Seneca, the two Plinies, etc. P. 616. 

CHAPTER XLVII. 

Progress of Christianity. 
Remote Preparation. Rapid Diffusion of the Gospel. Persecu- 
tions. Heresies. — Apologists: Quadratus, Justin Martyr, Apollinaris, 
Melito, Miltiades, Athenagoras. — Christian Writers in the 2d and 
3d Centuries: Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tei-tullian, and St. 
Cyprian. The Age of Doctors: St. Athanasius, St. Basil, St. Gregory 
of Nyssa, St. Gregory Nazianzen, St. Chrysostum, St. Ambrose, St. 
Hilary, St. Jerome, St. Augustine, Lactantius, Eusebius of Cresarea, St. 
Ephrem, Didymus, St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Epiphanius, St. Cyril of 
Alexandria, St. Prosper of Aquitania, St. Honoratus, St. Leo the Great. 
— Christianity and Roman Society. — Early Monasticism : St. Paul the 
Hermit, St. Anthony, St. Hilarion ; St. Martin of Tours. — The Church 
and the Barbarians. Conclusion. P. 622. 

INDEX. P. 634. 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



FROM THE CREATION, TO THE EXTINCTION OF THE ROMAN EMRIRE 
OF THE WEST IN A. D. 476. 



PART I. 

THE BIBLICAL ACCOUNT OF THE PREHISTORIC AGE. 



CHAPTER L 



from The Creation TO the flood.— b. c. ?-, 

The Creation of the World.— 'In the beginning,* 
God created the heavens and the earth,' that is, the matter, 
or elements, out of which the celestial bodies and the terres^ 
trial globe were afterwards made. For a length of time which 
the Bible leaves undetermined, the primitive elements of 
matter existed in a chaotic state, until by various steps, which 
Moses describes as the works of successive daysf or periods, 
the different portions of the universe were brought into being. 
On the first day, was created light ; on the second, the firma- 
ment ; on the third, after the separation of the earth from the 
sea, the herbs and trees ; on the fourth, the sun, moon, and 
stars ; on the . fifth, the fishes and birds ; on the sixth, the 

* Genesis i, i. The sacred text assigns no date for the epoch 
of the creation, and thus allows free scope for all scientific 
hypotheses. 

fThe Hebrew word for day, yom means also an indefinite 
period, in which sense modern interpreters generally regard it as 
used in the present instance. 

15 



16 PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt. I. 

higher animals and Man ; and on the seventh, 'God rested 
from his works.' Such is the Biblical, and only authentic 
account of the Creation. Though written for the sole object 
of showing, in a popular form, that God is the Author of all 
things, and nowise meant for a rigorously scientific exposi- 
tion of the dogma of Creation, the Mosaic narrative is in won- 
derful agreement with all the best ascertained facts of astron- 
omy and geology. 

The Creation of Adam (b. c. ?4963*). — After the 
earth had been prepared and adorned for the dwelling-place 
of our race, 'the Lord God formed man of the slime of the 
earth, and breathed into his face the breath of life,' that is, 
animated his body with a soul, or spiritual substance. This 
soul God endowed with understanding and free-will ; and to 
man, thus made in his image and after his likeness, he gave 
dominion over all created things. He placed him in the 
delightful region of Eden, in a spot which the Septuagint 
call 'Paradise' — a word of Persian origin, designating an 
extensive tract of pleasure-land, rather than an ordinary 
garden. In that blissful abode, 'the Lord God caused to 
grow every tree which is pleasant to the sight and good for 
food— the tree of life also, and the tree of knowledge of 
good and evil.' Thither God brought to Adam the beasts 
of the earth and the fowls of the air; and Adam gave them 
names according to each one's nature, or distinctive traits. 
Of the exact situation of the terrestrial paradise nothing is 
certainly known. What seems to be the best supported 
opinion places it in Armenia, not far from the sources of the 
Euphrates and the Tigris. 

The Creation of Eve. — Then the Lord God cast a deep 
sleep upon Adam ; and, while he slept, he took one of his 
ribs, of which he formed a woman, and brought her unto 
him. And when Adam awoke and saw her, he said : "This 
now is bone of my bone, and flesh of my flesh ; she shall be 
called Woman, because she was taken out of man.f Where- 
fore a man shall leave father and mother, and shall cleave to 

^According to the Benedictine chronology, which is founded on 
the lxx. The Hebrew text and the Vulgate give b. c. 4004 ; the 
Roman Martyrology, b. c. 5199. See p. 20. 

fFrom the above recital shines forth the truth of the unity of the 
human race ; inasmuch as God first created but one single individ- 
ual, Adam, i. e., man, and then out of him drew his partner, Eve, 
or life, 'the mother of all the living.' 



B. C, 4963-3308. THE GARDEN OF EDEN. jij 

his wife ; and they shall be two in one flesh. And they 
were both naked, Adam and his wife, and they were not 
ashamed" — so perfect was the state of innocence in which 
our first parents were created. 

Man's Probation and Fall. — Adam, as has been said, 
was placed by God 'in the paradise of pleasure/ or garden 
of Eden. This garden man was 'to dress and keep' as an 
agreeable occupation, rather than a laborious task ; and 
abundant scope was given for gratifying every lawful taste : 
"Of every tree of paradise thou mayest eat." Yet to remind 
him that he had a master, a restraint was laid upon his appe- 
tite and self-will : "Of the tree of knowledge of good and 
evil thou shalt not eat ; for in the day that thou eatest there- 
of, thou shalt surely die." But, despite the awful penalty by 
which it was enforced, our first parents allowed themselves 
to transgress the law. Deceived by Satan,* the chief of the 
fallen angels, who addressed her under the form of the ser- 
pent, Eve "took of the forbidden fruit, and did eat, and 
gave to her husband, and he did eat ; and the eyes of them 
both were opened." They began to perceive the disor- 
der of rebellious nature ; and, conscious of their sin, they 
tried to hide themselves from God's presence among the trees 
in the garden. But the Lord summoned them before him 
to hear their sentence. The woman was made subject to her 
husband, and condemned to bring forth her children in sor- 
row ; man was doomed to a life of toil ; and both were put in 
mind of death, which awaited them at a future day : "Dust 
thou art, and into dust thou shalt return." They were then 
driven eut of the paradise of pleasure ; and Cherubim, armed 
with flaming swords, were stationed at the entrance to 
prevent their return. Thus did our first parents, by their 
disobedience, lose the state of primitive innocence and grace, 
bring a train of spiritual evils into the world, and doom them- 
selves with their posterity to misery and death. 

The Promise of a Redeemer. — God, however, would 
not leave our first parents without hope ; and divine justice 
was tempered with mercy. The very curse pronounced 
upon the serpent, which the devil made use of to deceive the 
woman, contained the promise of a Redeemer: "Thou art 
cursed above all the beasts of the earth. I will put enmity 

*Satan used the serpent's tongue as an instrument to form the 
sounds which reached the ears of the woman. 



1 8 PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt. I. 

between thee and the woman, and between thy seed and her 
seed ; she* shall crush thy head, and thou wilt lie in wait 
for her heel." Here we have the first prophecy of the Mes- 
siah. To the woman God promises that of her shall one 
day be born a Savior, who, after suffering from the malignity 
of the serpent, or devil, shall destroy his works and power, 
rescue man from the slavery of sin, and become 'to all that 
obey him, the cause of eternal salvation.' 

Cain and Abel. — After their banishment from Eden, 
Eve bore her first-born son, Cain. Her second son was 
named Abel. The latter was a keeper of sheep ; the former, 
a tiller of the ground.f In course of time, it came to pass 
that they offered sacrifices unto the Lord. Cain brought of 
the fruits of the earth ; Abel, of the firstlings of his flock and 
of the fat thereof. But the two oblations were not presented 
in the same spirit, and so the Lord signified his willing 
acceptance of Abel's offering ; but Cain's was rejected, on 
account of the state of mind in which it was brought. At 
this 'Cain was exceedingly angry.' He would not pardon 
his brother for being better than himself; and, when they 
were in the field together, he fell upon him and slew him. 
In punishment of his crime, the ground was cursed for him 
again ; and he was condemned to be 'a fugitive and a vaga- 
bond upon the earth.' 

The Posterity of Cain. — Cain received his doom in 
a hardened spirit of impenitence. "My iniquity," he ex- 
claimed, "is greater than to receive pardon." Having gone 
out from the presence of the Lord, he directed his steps to 
the east of Eden, and settled in the land of Nod, that is, 
banishment There he built a city, and called it Henoch, 
after his first-born son. His next descendants to the fifth 
generation were Irad, Maviael, and Mathusael. The son of 
Mathusael, Lamech, was the first to violate the original unity 
of marriage. His address to his two wives {Gen, iv. 23-24), 
is the earliest known example of poetry, and it also shows 
that he committed the second murder. 

*Modern critics are agreed that the true reading is it, referring 
not to the woman but to her seed. The words thy head and thou, 
it is needless to say, have an especial, if not exclusive reference 
to the devil, the real author of the Temptation and cause of the Fall. 

fThus were the two arts which are most necessary for the sup- 
port of human life, cultivated from the very beginning of the 
world. 



B. C. ?-3308. FROM CREATION TO THE FLOOD. £9 

Origin of the Mechanical and Liberal Arts. — 
Of Lamech's three sons, Jabel 'was the father of such as live 
in tents and of herdsmen ;' Jubal 'was the father of them that 
play upon the harp and the organ ;' and Tubalcain 'was a 
hammerer and artificer in every work of brass and iron.' 
Here we have pointed to us the first origin of the mechanical 
and liberal arts. But these words are far from conveying an 
adequate idea of the perfection which the arts and sciences 
reached before the Flood. For what may we not think of 
the capabilities of men who were taught by such a master 
as Adam, and whose personal experience embraced a period 
of nearly iooo years ! 

The race of Seth. — Longevity of the Patriarchs. 
Instead of Abel, whom Cain slew, God gave to Eve another 
son — Seth, whose descendants were Enos, Cainan, Malael, 
Jared, Henoch, Mathusala, and Lamech, the father of Noah.* 
Among these patriarchs, Henoch stands conspicuous as one 
who led a life of close communion with his Maker. When 
he was 365 years old, his faith was rewarded by a special 
favor: 'He walked with God, and was seen no more;'f having 
been 'translated that he should not see death.' Mathusala, 
his son, lived longer than any other man, and reached the 
extraordinary age of 969 years. Before the Flood, the span 
of human life was nine or ten times what it now is. The true 
causes of such longevity are not known. By some it is 
attributed to the greater purity of the atmosphere, and the 
superior wholesomeness of the food yielded by the primitive 
soil. 

Perversion of the Human Race. — Cain, wandering 
and impenitent, became the father of a posterity wicked like 
himself. But to Seth whom he 'begot to his own image and 
likeness', Adam handed down the promises of mercy, which 
had been given to him by God. Faith in these promises 
became the distinguishing mark of the descendants of Seth ; 
and, in contrast with the race of Cain, or 'sons of men', they 
are called in Scripture 'sons of God.' Among them,the prim- 
itive simplicity of a pastoral life and devotional habits long 
prevailed. But at last, 'the sons of God, seeing that the 
daughters of men were fair, took to themselves wives of all 

*Thus we see by how few steps, and yet by how many contem- 
porary teachers, the traditions of primeval history were handed 
down from Adam to Noah. 

■[Hebrews xi, 5, 



20 PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt. I. 

whom they chose; and this mingling of races resulted in 
the thorough corruption of the descendants of Seth. Violence 
and godlessness prevailed everywhere ; and impurity became 
so general, that the lust of the antediluvian age is referred to 
by St. Peter and St. Jude, as a pattern of the wickedness of 
the last days, which shall again make the world ripe for des- 
truction. 

Uncertainty of the Biblical Chronologies. — Very 
different are the dates assigned by historians to the Crea- 
tion of man* the Flood, and the Call of Abraham ; and yet all 
are derived from the same source — the Biblical genealogies 
(Ge?i. v, xi), as they are also obtained through the same 
process, viz., by adding together the years during which the 
patriarchs lived not contemporaneously. The discrepancy 
arises from these years not being set down uniformly* in 
the various texts. The primitive figures of Genesis have, 
in course of time, been altered ; and thus it has become 
impossible to fix with certainty the true dates. Besides the 
genealogies of Genesis, there are, in the rest of the sacred 
books, various other numerical statements, affording the 
elements for a continuous chronology down to the birth of 
Christ. But here also it happens that the figures are not 
found to agree. Owing to all these discrepancies, more than 
200 chronologies have been composed, all founded on bibli- 
cal data variously combined, or modified according to the 
different reading's of the sacred texts. Which of them comes 
nearest to the truth, is a question on which the Catholic Church 
has not pronounced ; and, although she adopts the Vulgate 
as her authentic version of the Scriptures, guaranteeing its 
substantial accuracy as a translation of the original and its 
immunity from all doctrinal error, she by no means vouches 
for its numerical indications. In the early centuries of the 
Christian era, between five and six thousand years were uni- 
versally reckoned, by both Greek and Latin writers, as having 
elapsed from the creation of Adam to the coming of Christ. 
When desired by the Emperor to fix an era, or convenient 
starting point for historical computation, the Fathers of the 

**The Hebrew text, and its Latin translation by St. Jerome — the 
Vulgate, reckon 1656 years before the Flood ; some ancient Mss. 
of the Greek version of the Septuagint (lxx) allowed as many as 
2262 ; the Samaritan Pentateuch has only 1307. From Noah to 
Abraham, the lxx count 1172 years ; the Latin and Hebrew, 292 ; 
and the Samaritan, 942. 



B. C. ?-.3308. FROM THE CREATION TO THE FLOOD. 21 

6th Ecumenical Council, held at Constantinople in A. D. 680, 
assigned *B. c. 5509 as the date of the creation of man. 
This date the Greek Church still retains. In the west, the 
two chronologies the most generally received in modern 
times have been that of Usher, the Protestant archbishop of 
Armagh, with B. c. 4004 for its starting point, and the Bene- 
dictine with B. C 4963. The latter is followed, in this manual, 
down to the establishment of royalty among the Israelites, 
where concurring Assyrian, Babylonian, and Egyptian doc- 
uments show it to be erroneous. 

The discrepancies found in the various texts or ancient 
Mss. of the Scriptures, ought not to surprise us. Mistakes 
of copyists are nowhere so easy as in numbers, especially 
where letters are used as numerical signs, since the context 
here affords little or no safeguard against error ; and God, 
not designing the Bible to be a repository of scientific data, 
has not wrought miracles to preserve the Biblical figures 
unaltered. It is enough for our faith, that, in all their essen- 
tial parts pertaining to religious teaching f, the various 
sacred texts perfectly agree, and show such character of 
unity as attests their fundamental and permanent integrity : 
no ancient book has reached us in so perfect a state of pres- 
ervation as the Holy Bible. 

Nothing as yet, in the actual stage of historic or scientific 
discoveries, proves that no man's existence on earth is to be 

*This is of course a decision of mere historical convenience, not 
respecting either faith or morals. The eras of Alexandria and 
Antioch have respectively b. c. 5503, and b. c. 5493, thus nearly 
coinciding with that of Constantinople. 

|The subject matter of Holy Scripture consists partly of truths 
and facts recorded on account of their intrinsic value for our in- 
struction in Faith and Morals, partly of facts which have no doctrinal 
value of their own, and are in consequence recorded not for their 
own sake, but for the sake of what is intrinsically important, on 
account of the historical connection which binds them together. 
The creation of the world and all its constituent parts, the common 
descent of mankind from Adam and Eve, the peculiar care extend- 
ed to one family, from which the Redeemer was to spring — these 
are statements recorded for their own sake, over the pure transmis- 
sion of which a Special Providence watches. Not so, at least in an 
equal degree, the precise succession of time according to which 
the several orders of created substance came into being, the pre- 
cise ethnic affinities of the tribes which went forth to people the 
earth, the precise individuals who were the progenitors of Noah or 
Abraham, the length of time they lived, etc— London Tablet, 
Jan. 30, 1886. 



22 PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt. II. 

traced beyond the dates derived from the sacred text as it 
now stands. But should true science require a wider scope 
of chronology, the learned are free to carry farther back the 
epochs of the Flood or of the Creation of man. We must 
ever bear in mind that all the dates of remote ancient history, 
whether sacred or profane, are more or less doubtful, and 
often purely conjectural. It is only about the time of the 
destruction of the Kingdom of Israel, in 722 b. C, that, owing 
to the convergence of several independent testimonies, a per- 
fectly safe basis for chronology is reached. 



CHAPTER II. 



FROM THE FLOOD TO THE DISPERSION OF MEN. — 



B. C. 3308-?. 



Noah (b. c. 3908-2958) builds the ARK.— * God seeing 
that the wickedness of men was great, and that all the thought 
of their heart was bent upon evil at all times, repented that he 
had made man', and said: "I will destroy man and beasts, 
birds and reptiles, from the face of the earth." Noah, how- 
ever, who was ( a just and perfect man/ found grace in the 
eyes of the Lord. He was commanded by God to build an 
ark, or vessel, of vast dimensions, wherein himself and his 
three sons — Sem, Cham, and Japheth, his wife and their 
wives, and certain specified animals, would be preserved from 
the impending destruction. A hundred or a hundred and 
twenty years did Noah spend in constructing the ark. It 
was a sort of immense floating house, which contained a 
number of 'nests,' or small apartments, arranged in three 
tiers, one above another. The ark is computed to have been 
547 feet long, 92 feet broad, and 54 feet high, that is, con- 



B. C. 3308-?. FROM FLOOD TO DISPERSION OF MEN. £3 

siderably larger than any vessel now in existence. Noah 
Was then 600 years old. 

The Flood (b. c. 3308). — 'When Noah had done all 
things which the Lord had commanded,' he went into the 
ark with his sons, his wife, the wives of his sons, and the 
animals. Then 'all the fountains of the great deep were 
broken up, and the floodgates of heaven were opened, and 
the rain fell upon the earth forty days and forty nights.' 
And the water increased, till it rose fifteen cubits above the 
summit of the loftiest mountains ; 'and it destroyed all sub- 
stance which was upon the earth, both man and beast, and 
the creeping things, and fowls of the air: Noah only re- 
mained, and they who were with him in the ark.' After 150 
days, the waters began to subside ; and, on the 17th day of 
the 7th month, they left the ark aground upon one of the 
mountains of Ararat, or Armenia, On the first day of the 
tenth month, the tops of the mountains appeared. Forty 
days afterwards, 'Noah sent out a raven which went forth 
and did not return. He sent forth also a dove after him ; 
but she, finding no resting-place, came back again ; and he 
put forth his hand, and caught her, and brought her into 
the ark.' In another seven days, the dove was sent out 
again, and returned bearing an olive-leaf— a sign that even 
the lowest trees were uncovered. Finally, on being let out 
for the third time at the end of a week, 'she returned not 
any more unto him ; and Noah, opening the covering of 
the ark, looked and saw that the face of the ground was 
dry.' 

The Universality of the Flood merely rela- 
tive. — Ancient authors generally believed the Deluge to 
have been strictly universal, and to have covered the whole 
earth without the exception of one single spot. But an ever- 
increasing number of theologians maintain, that it was uni- 
versal only so far as man was concerned, and extended 
merely to all the then known world. Indeed, if it be proper 
to understand passages of Scripture as the author, and those 
whom he addressed, understood them, what is more natural 
than to restrict the meaning of the words — 'the whole earth, 
all the mountains, and animals'— used in the Mosaic descrip- 
tion to the earth, mountains, and animals as known by 
Noah, Moses, and the Hebrews ? They assuredly did not 
attach to the geographical universality of the globe the 
meaning which that expression implies since the discovery 



24 



PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt. II. 



of America and Australia. — The hypothesis of a partial del- 
uge,* has the double advantage of harmonizing better with 
the present state of the natural sciences, and of precluding 
many objections raised against the Mosaic recital, among 
others, those drawn from the difficulty of collecting, hous- 
ing, and transporting back animals which dwelt beyond the 
seas. Those which lived in regions not yet inhabited by 
mankind, being left undisturbed, need not be taken into ac- 
count, in reference to the Flood, Noah, and his ark. 

Noah's Sacrifice. — After being in the ark one year and 
ten days, Noah went out of it with every living thing that 
was within. His first act, on leaving the ark, was to take a 
couple of every clean bird and beast, and to offer them as a 
burnt-offering. This sacrifice was acceptable to the Lord ; 
and he promised that he would not any more curse the earth, 
or destroy the creatures that dwelt upon it : "While the earth 
remaineth, seedtime and harvest, cold and heat, summer and 
winter, night and day, shall not cease." 

God's Blessing, Precepts, and Covenant. — To Noah 
and his sons God then repeated the blessing pronounced on 
Adam and Eve : "Increase, and multiply, and fill the earth." 
He added : "Let the fear and dread of you be upon all the 
beasts of the earth, and upon all the fowls of the air. All 
the fishes of the sea are delivered into your hand ; every- 
thing which moveth and liveth, shall be foodf for you. Even 
as the green herbs have I delivered to you all things, but 
flesh with blood ye shall not eat. For the blood of your 
lives I will require from every beast, and at the hand of man 
will I require the life of man. Whoever shall shed man's 
blood, his blood shall be shed : for to the image of God 
man was made. Behold I establish my covenant with you 
and with your seed after you. And this is the sign of my 
covenant with you : my bow shall appear in the clouds, and 
I will remember my covenant with you, and the waters 
shall no more be a flood to destroy all flesh." 

Noah's Blessing and Curse. — Noah began his new 
life as a husbandman. "He tilled the ground, and planted 

*We should not confound the above interpretation of a partial 
deluge with an opinion lately started, that the flood extended only 
to those regions wherein lived the mass of mankind, but spared 
some tribes that had already reached Ethiopia and Mongolia. 

|Till now fruit and vegetables had constituted the sole food of 
man ; henceforth the use of flesh was allowed. 



B. C. 3308-?. FROM FLOOD TO DISPERSION OF MEN. 



25 



a vineyard. And, drinking of the wine, he became drunk, 
and he was uncovered in his tent." His second son, Cham, 
the father of Canaan, on perceiving this, jestingly "told it to 
his two brothers without. But Sem and Japheth put a cloak 
upon tjheir shoulders ; and, going backward, with their faces 
turned away, covered their father's nakedness. And Noah, 
awaking from the wine, when he had learned what his young- 
er son had done to him, said : Cursed be Canaan ! a servant 
of servants shall he be to his brethren. Blessed be the Lord 
God of Sem ! be Canaan his servant. May God enlarge 
Japheth ; and may he dwell in the tents of Sem, and Canaan 
be his servant !" The subsequent history of Canaan shows 
the fulfillment of the curse. He became the slave of Sem, 
when Israel took possession of his iand ; and, when Tyre 
fell before the arms of Alexander, and Carthage succumbed 
to her Roman conquerors, he became the slave of Japheth. 
The blessing upon Sem is seen in the history of Abraham 
and of his descendants, the chosen race, or the people of 
God. The blessing upon Japheth, the ancestor of the great 
European nations, is illustrated in their subjugation of the 
rest of the world, and especially in the wide-spread diffusion 
of their — the Christian — religion. "Noah lived after the 
Flood 350 years. And all his days were 950 years : and he 
died." 

The Tower of Babel 5 " and Confusion of Tongues. 
To Sem, Cham, and Japheth 'sons were born after the flood,' 
and they began again to fill the earth. How long they tar- 
ried in the highlands of Armenia, is a matter of doubt. It 
is generally supposed that theyf removed early to the fertile 
plains of Sennaar J — the southern part of Mesopotamia, since 
known as Babylonia. There they discovered the art of 
making brick from the argillaceous soil, and of cementing 
it with the mineral bitumen, or asphalt. Here, too, they so 
multiplied, that they found it necessary to disperse. But,' 
before parting, they said : "Come, let us make a city and 
tower, the top whereof may reach heaven ; and let us make 
our name famous." This undertaking, inspired by vanity, 

*The historic Babylon rose close to, if not precisely on, the same 
spot as the Babel Tower. Babylon is the Greek form of Babel. 

f Some think that only Sem and his children, with a part of the 
posterity of Cham, are meant in the passage of Genesis xi, 2. 
'When they removed from the east.' 

tOr Shinar, 'the land of the rivers.' 



26 PREHISTORIC AGE. Chapt II. 

displeased Almighty God. "He confounded their tongue, 
that they might not understand one another's speech. And 
they ceased to build the city. And therefore the name of it 
was called Bade/, because there the language of the whole 
earth was confounded ; and thence the Lord scattered them 
abroad upon the face of all countries." 

The Three Great Human Families.* — The chief 
seat of the race of Cham (the swarthy) was in Africa. Of 
his sons, Mesraim peopled Egypt ; Chus y Ethiopia ; and 
Phut with Lubim (whence Libya), the countries to the west 
of Egypt and Ethiopia. The Canaanites and the Philistines, 
the primitive Cretans and Cypriots, as well as the inhabitants 
of some districts in Asia Minor, where also his children. In 
fine, his descendants mingled with the Semitic races on the 
shores of Arabia, and along the Tigris and the Euphrates. 

The sons of Sem occupied: Aram, Syria; Arphaxad, 
Chaldea ; Assur, Assyria ; Elam, Elymais ; and Joctan, 
Arabia. 

From Japheth sprung : Gomer, the father of the Celtic 
race ; Magog, of the Scythic and the Teutonic ; Madai', of the 
Bactrians, Medes, and Persians ; Javan, of the Pelasgic, 
Hellenic, and Italian races ; Thubal, of the Iberians ; Mosoch, 
of the Cappadocians ; Thiras, of the Thracians and Slav- 
onians. Japheth is believed to be the father of more than 
half the human family. The posterity of his brothers were 
the first to reach their political development ; but his own 
descendants have long since attained an incontested superior- 
ity over the rest of mankind. Being the dominant race both 
in Europe and in the valley of the Ganges, they are often 
designated as the great Indo-European family of nations. 
They are also called Arya?is from Ariana,i" the primitive 
seat of the race. 

Postdiluvian Civilization. — Numberless monuments 
disappeared with the Flood, and a thousand discoveries were 
swept away. But the bulk of the antediluvian civilization 

*Gen. x ; the ethnographic table it contains is the oldest docu- 
ment of the kind. Every fresh advance of linguistic and historical 
studies serves but to place its correctness in clearer light. 

fA country of Asia, lying east of the Caspian Sea and north of 
the Hindoo Koosh and Paropamisan Mountains. Linguistic stud- 
ies have of late furnished additional evidence of a family relation 
among the peoples mentioned in tenth Chapter of Genesis as 
sprung from Japheth. 



B. C. 3308-?. FROM FLOOD TO DISPERSION OF MEN. 27 

was transmitted by Noah and his sons to their posterity, 
Such of their descendants as continued to dwell in the land 
of Sennaar, or enjoyed, in more distant countries, the posses- 
sion of rich lands and the blessing of peace, not only retained 
the elements of civilization thus handed down,* but by slow 
and patient steps regained what had been lost. The rest of 
mankind, on the contrary, owing to the sterility of the soil, 
prolonged wars, or other causes, gradually fell into a state of 
ignorance and barbarism. 

Decrease of Human Longevity— General Idola- 
try and Corruption. — After the Flood, a decrease in the 
duration of human life became noticeable. Whether in 
consequence of noxious vapors which diminished the purity 
of the atmosphere, or because the earth, deteriorated by the 
waters of Deluge, produced less wholesome fruits and vege- 
tables, or for some other reason, none of the postidluvian 
reached the great age of the antediluvian patriarchs. Re- 
duced tirst by a sharp descent to less than 500 years, human 
longevity fell gradually, in the course of a few generations, 
below 200, and continued to decrease till restricted to its 
present short duration. — Another and worse change was the 
lapse of Noah's offspring into idolatry and corruption. 
Forgetting the true God, men abandoned themselves with- 
out restraint to their worst passions, and prostituted to vile 
creatures the homage and adoration due to the Creator 
alone. 

This explains the marvel of finding the people of Egypt and 
Chaldea, in the early infancy of their existence as nations, in pos- 
session, not only of recondite astronomical truths, but of the 
perfection of mechanical and architectural skill, as well as of chem- 
ical knowledge displayed in the various compounds used by them 
in different arts. 



PART It. 



THE ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. 

FROM THE DAWN OF THE MONARCHY, TO THE PERSIAN 
CONQUEST IN 527 B. C. 



CHAPTER I. 

THE LAND, LANGUAGE, AND EARLY CIVILIZATION 
OF EGYPT. 

The Land of Egypt and the Nile. — Egypt may be 
said to consist wholly of the valley of the Nile below the 
First Cataract. The average breadth of the valley above 
Memphis (or Cairo), is only seven miles ; but, below this 
point, the plain expands into the Delta, which is about ioo 
miles from north to south, and 200 along the coast of the 
Mediterranean. 

The fertility of Egypt is proverbial. It is the result of the 
annual overflowings of the Nile, which leave a rich deposit 
capable of producing extraordinary crops with hardly any 
cultivation. According to Herodotus, there were parts of 
Egypt where it was unnecessary to use either plough or 
hoe. The seed was scattered on the alluvial deposit, and 
trodden in by beasts— sheep, goats, or pigs,— after which the 
husbandman had nothing to do but simply to await the 
harvest 

Egyptian Writing : Hieroglyphic — Hieratic — 
Demotic. — The Egyptians had three sorts of letters, and 
consequently of v/riting: the hieroglyphic (sacred carvings), 
the Hieratic (priestly characters), and the Demotic (popu- 
lar^, sometimes called enchorial. The hieroglyphics are 
representations of objects borrowed from nature or purely 

29 



30 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. I. 

imaginary, as the heavenly bodies, the human form and its 
various parts, animals, fishes, reptiles, plants, vegetables, 
articles of dress, furniture, vases, instruments, etc. The 
number of hieroglyphic signs as counted by Mr. Brugsch, in 
1872, exceeds 3000. By the ancient Egyptians this writing 
was chiefly used for inscriptions on their monuments, being 
either engraved in relief, or sunk below the surface, and not 
unfrequently decorated with a variety of colors. For less 
ornamental purposes they employed the hieratic characters, 
or abridged hieroglyphics, which differ from hieroglyphics 
proper as our small letters from capitals. About the 7th 
century b. c. the hieratic writing was simplified. The 
hieroglyphic forms which it retained, were almost entirely 
dropped, and it was brought nearer the alphabetic system. 
This new kind of cursive writing, known as the demotic — 
the last native form, rapidly superseded the hieratic, and 
continued in use till the 3d century b. c, when in turn it 
yielded to the Greek alphabet. From that time, the number of 
persons who could read the old Egyptian characters grew less, 
until all knowledge of their signification was altogether lost. 

The Rosetta - Stone. — In a. d. 1799, during the 
French occupation of Egypt, Lieutenant Bouchard unearthed, 
near Rosetta, a slab of black granite, bearing an inscription 
written both in hieroglyphic and in demotic letters, with a 
Greek translation. By means of this and his own surprising 
powers of intuition, the learned Champollion at last found the 
key which has unlocked the hieroglyphic writings. Before 
his death, in 1832, he succeeded in fixing the value of 260 
phonetic hieroglyphics. Other savants, with laudable zeal, 
have since continued his works, and deciphered also the 
hieratic and demotic writing. 

The Deciphering of the Egyptian Language. — The 
ability to distinguish the separate Egyptian characters would 
have proved of no avail, had not the Coptic language sup- 
plied the means of understanding the meaning of the words. 
The Copts are the remnants of the old Egyptian population, 
that have survived through all the dynastic changes of cen- 
turies, under the successive rule of the Persians, Greeks, 
Romans, Arabs, and Turks. The language which they con- 
tinued to speak* till within 250 years ago, without being 

*To this day it is the liturgical language of the Egyptian Mono- 
physites. 



LAND, LANGUAGE, CIVILIZATION. \i 

absolutely identical with the old Egyptian, is its legitimate 
descendant, and bears to it the closest resemblance. It is 
mainly through its affinity with the Coptic that the old Egyp- 
tian language has received its interpretation. 

Early Civilization of the Egyptians. — The exuber- 
ant fertility and easy working of the soil of Egypt, together 
with the long peace enjoyed by the settlers after their 
coming into the country, enabled the Egyptians to retain and 
improve all the arts of civilization which they had brought 
from Asia. At an early period, they erected large cities 
with magnificent palaces and temples, and built themselves 
elaborate tombs, the walls and surfaces of which they 
adorned with sculptured reliefs and pictures of their own 
deeds, or. covered with inscriptions. In those tombs and in 
the mummy-cases of the dead, they also enclosed rolls of 
paper made of the papyrus reed,* containing all sorts of 
records — historical and official, religious and literary. To 
the existence of these records, and to her monumental 
inscriptions, Egpyt owes her place as the first country that 
has a history. 

Unsettled Chronology— Manetho's List of Kings. 
— The ancient Egyptians had no era ; each sovereign dated 
his annals by his regnal years. Nor have there as yet been 
gathered from the monumental records and older writings 
sufficient data whereby to construct a real chronologyf of 
early Egyptian history. Manetho's J List of Rings, arranged 
in 30 Dynasties, with the number of years for each reign, is 
altogether unreliable, being both inconsistent in itself and 
often contradicted by the monuments. Besides, it is doubt- 
ful what dynasties were contemporaneous or consecutive. 

*Down to the time of the Saracenic invasion, the banks of the 
Nile were covered with this reed — the papyrus, the Latin name of 
which gives us our -word, paper, and its Greek name byblus, the 
word for book perpetuated in our Bible ( The Book). The inner 
membrane of the papyrus was spread out into leaves, and these 
were joined with gluten into a long strip, which could be rolled 
into a volume (Lat. volumen, a roll). 

t "It is only from the beginning of Dynasty xxvi — Later Saite 
Monarchy, (b. c. 650) — that it rests on data which leave little to be 
desired as to their exactitude." — Brugsch. 

JAn Egyptian priest, who, under Ptolemy Philadelphus, com- 
piled from records laid up in the temples a history of the native 
kings. The 'list/ with a few fragments, is all that has been 
preserved. 



%2 Ancient Egyptians. Chapt. if. 

Manetho grouped his 30 dynasties under three heads : the 
Old Empire, the Middle Empire, or period of the Shepherd 
Kings, and the New Empire, which extends down to the 
Grecian conquest. 

Epochs of Egyptian History. — Ending the history of 
the Ancient Egyptians with their subjugation by Cambyses, 
in 327 b. c. that is with Manetho's xxvi dynasty, we have 
adopted the following division into 4 periods : 1st, the Mem- 
phian Monarchy ; 2nd, the First Theban Monarchy, (b. c. 
2500-2120), and the Shepherd Kings (b. c. 2120-1900); 3d, 
the New Theban Monarchy (about b. c. 1900- 1 100); 4th, 
the Kingdoms of the Delta, the Ethiopian Pharoahs, and the 
Later Sai'te Monarchy (b. c. 1100-527). Each of these peri- 
ods will form the subject of a separate chapter. 



CHAPTER II. 

THE MEMPHIAN MONARCHY.* 



Rise of the Memphian Monarchy. — Egypt is said 
to have been peopled by Mesraim,\ a son of Cham, if not by 
that patriarch himself. Like many other countries in their 
earliest political state, it appears to have had at first a num- 
ber of petty kings, who each reigned over a single city with 
its surrounding' territory, or nomc. In course of time, a 
change took place ; the city of Memphis ,began to acquire 
a certain preeminence over the neighboring states. To 
MenesJ ancient historians ascribe the foundation of Mem- 
phis, whose site he gained by raising a dike, which confined 
the Nile to its channel in the middle of the valley. But, in 

*This period embraces Manetho's first ten dynasties. 

fMesraim is also the Semitic name of Egypt. The native name of 
the country, Khem (black or brown), is identical with that of the 
patriarch Cham. The ancient Egyptians were of that Asiatic race 
which is called Hamitic, a name denoting at once a swarthy (not 
negro-black) complexion, and a supposed descent from Cham, 
or Ham. 

Jin Egyptian, Mna, or Mena'i. 



THE MEMPHIAN MONARCHY. 



33 



reality there remains nothing which can be traced back to the 
time of Menes ; and modern critics doubt or even deny his 
personal existence. On all hands, however, it is admitted 
that the Memphian kingdom early attained an eminent 
degree of strength and civilization. The evidences of this 
progress are found, not indeed in Memphis itself, which is 
now but a heap of shapeless mounds ; but in its vast nec- 
ropolis, * and above all in those imperishable tombs of the 
Memphian kings — the pyramids. 

The Pyramids and Pyramid Kings. — The pyramids, 
66 in number, stand in several groups along the western 
margin of the valley of the Nile, over a space of 70 miles. 
The three large ones of Ghizeh, which form part of the 
necropolis of Memphis and are referred to Manetho's 4th 
dynasty, are the most interesting of all. The first, or Great 
Pyramid, was built by Cheops (Khufn or Shufu) ; the 
second, which is nearly as large, by Cephren (Shafra) ; the 
third, which is much smaller but of choicer materials, by 
Mycerinus (Men&aura, or Mencheres). 

The Pyramid of Cheops is the vastest monument in the 
world, or, as Dean Stanley expresses it, 'the nearest 
approach to a mountain that the art of man has produced.' 
The account of its execution was thus told Herodotusf by the 
Egyptian priests. " Cheops closed the temples and forbade 
his subjects to sacrifice, compelling them instead to labor — 
one and all — in his service. 100,000 men worked constantly, 
and were relieved every three months by fresh laborers. 
Ten years were employed in making the causeway for the 
conveyance of the limestone blocks from the quarries on the 
other side of the Nile. The Pyramid itself was twenty years 
in building." At the time of the Saracenic invasion, it was 
still intact, its base being a square of 764 feet,|| and its height 

*City of the dead, or cemetery ; it extends for more than 15 miles 
along the foot terraces of the Libyan range. 

fHerodotus devotes a whole book of his History to an account 
of Egypt. Unable to read the hieroglyphic and hieratic writings, 
he could not control the statements of his informants — chiefly 
priests of Memphis and Sai's, and must often have been imposed 
upon. But his own truthfulness is unquestioned. "Such as think 
the tales told by the Egyptians credible," he says, "are free to 
accept them for history. For my own part, I propose to myself, 
throughout my work, faithfully to record the traditions of the 
several nations." 

|| It covers 13 acres of ground, twice the area of St. Peter's at Rome. 



34 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. II. 

about 483 — dimensions which represent 89,000,000 cubic 
feet of masonry and a weight of 6,848,000 tons. What labor 
and skill were needed to procure, polish, and pile up such an 
amount of cut stone, these figures sufficiently show. Indeed 
one such work alone tells of vast resources, great mechani- 
cal skill, a long period of peaceful security, and unlimited 
command of naked human strength ; while, in its projector and 
accomplisher, it denotes an elevation of thought approaching 
to genius, with resolution and strength of mind of the highest 
order. It is certainly most wonderful, that, in Egypt, almost 
at the commencement of its history and among a people 
uninstructed from without, a king should conceive and effect 
a design so vast — a structure which, after the lapse of so 
many ages, is counted still among the chief wonders of the 
world, remaining the most prodigious monument of human 
construction.* From inscriptions recently discovered, it is 
shown that Cheops built a temple to Isis, whom he styles 
his mother ; and that he composed the Sacred Books, which 
continued to be highly valued in later ages. But the calam- 
ities which such constructions as his necessarily entail upon 
the people, caused an ill repute to attach to his memory. 

S/iafra, the author of the 'Second Pyramid,' showed, in 
designing his tomb, an ambition hardly inferior to that of his 
predecessor. He probably built also the small temple behind 
the great sphinx, a structure entirely composed of huge gran- 
ite blocks, smoothly polished, and fitted together with a skill 
which astonishes the modern architect. 

Menckeres, or Menkaura, who is said to have been dis- 
tinguished for religion, justice, and kindness of heart, 
relinquished, as opposed to his people's happiness, the 
magnificent ideas of Cheops and Shafra. As designed and 
executed by himself, the ' Third Pyramid ' seems to have 
been a square of no very great proportions. A later 
sovereign, perhaps Queen Nitocris, enlarged it to its pres- 
ent dimensions, and covered it to half its height with the 
beautiful casing of red granite for which it is especially 
admired. 

We need not say more of the pyramid builders. It is 
quite enough for the glory of their period, that it carried to 

*In the opinion of the most eminent astronomers of our own 
day, this Pyramid is not, like the others, a mere mausoleum, but a 
monument embodying the highest truths and presupposing the 
highest attainments in astronomical and mathematical science. 



THE MEMPHIAN MONARCHY. 35 

perfection its own style of architecture. Besides their pyra- 
mids, the kings of that age erected solid and enduring tem- 
ples, — one of which has been lately exhumed. 

Social Life under the Memphian Monarchy. — Nor 
is it alone the pyramids and temples that attest the advanced 
civilization which existed under the Memphian Monarchy. 
In the rock-hewn sepulchres, dating from this period, 
pictures and hieroghyphics have been found, showing the 
social state at that time. Land-owners and the various 
officials of the age are depicted therein. The colossal figure 
of the owners of the tomb, armed with the stick is the most 
prominent. Next comes the task-master, ready to inflict the 
bastinado, and the scribe with his tablet and pen in hand, enter- 
ing the account of the various products which the overseer, 
by the hands of his slaves, presents to the master. Droves 
of oxen, thousands in number ; whole herds of cattle, milked 
at one time ; trains of servants, laden with provisions ; table 
piled with bread, fruit, and meat — are the characteristics of 
prevailing abundance and prosperity. 

From the same pictures we are led to infer that field- sports — ■ 
hunting, fowling, and fishing — were eagerly pursued. The 
chief in-door amusements were concerts and dances per- 
formed, in presence of the master and mistress of the house- 
hold and their guests, by hired musicians and dancing girls. 

A curious feature of the representations is the number and 
variety of domestic animals — donkeys, dogs, apes, antelopes, 
gazelles, geese, ducks, tame storks, and pigeons — all depicted 
with remarkable fidelity to nature. The camels, giraffes, 
elephants, horses, so common in Egypt at a later date, are 
not seen on these monuments. 

First Evidence of a United Egypt. — The extent of 
Egyptian territory ruled by the great pyramid kings and 
the other monarchs of Manetho's iv and v dynasties is doubt- 
ful. Of princes who held sway over the whole Nile valley, 
and made extensive military expeditions, we meet the first 
evidence with dynasty vi. These may, therefore, be sup- 
posed to be the first kings of United Egypt as we find it in 
that day, and to have undertaken their foreign conquests 
only after the increase and consolidation of their power at 
home. 

Dismemberment of the Memphian Monarchy. — 
The sixth dynasty is mainly composed of a group of four 
monarchs, who bore the names of Teta, Pepi or Merira 



36 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. III. 

Memenra, and Nerferkara. To this period also belongs 
Queen Nitocris, the only Egyptian female that is known to 
have held the government in her sole name. About the 
time of her death, anarchy appears to have set in. The 
Memphian Monarchy was dismembered. Out of its ruins 
several small states were formed, until, in central Egypt, a 
new power developed itself at Thebes, which ended by 
absorbing the rival kingdoms. No means exist of measur- 
ing the interval between the decadence of Memphis and the 
rise of Thebes to political preeminence. No monuments 
belonging to dynasties vii, viii, ix, and x have yet been dis- 
covered, and of this period nothing is known. 



CHAPTER III. 



The First Theban Monarchy - (?b. c. 2500-2120), 
and the Shepherd Kings (?b. c. 21 20-1 900). * 

Situation and Rise of Thebes. — Of all the eligible 
sites for a great city along the course of the Nile, few could 
be found superior to that where once stood the famous city 
of Thebes. f Here, for the first time since quitting the 
Nubian desert, does the Nile enter upon a wide and ample 
space ; on either side the hills recede, and a broad, green 
plain of the richest alluvium spreads out on both banks. 
Here, too, there open, to the east and to the west, lines of 
route offering great advantages for trade, on the one hand 

*This period embraces Manetho's xi, xii, xiii, xiv, xv, xvi, and 
xvii dynasties. 

t Called by its inhabitants Apt, Apet, Ape, or, with the feminine 
article, Tape, which form the Greeks represented by Thebai, 
v/hence our Thebes. After it became the great seat of the wor- 
ship of Cham [Ham), or Amun {Amen), it received the sacred 
names of P-amen Amun-ei (the abode of Amen). Hence, the He- 
brew prophets call it No-Ammon or simply No Hence, also, its 
classical name of Diospolis the Great; for the Greeks regarded the 
Egyptian Amun as their Jove, and styled him Zeus Amnion (in Latin, 
Jupiter Ammon.) - 



?B. C. 2500-2I20. THE FIRST THEBAN MONARCHY. 37 

with the Lesser Oasis * and the tribes of the interior of Africa, 
on the other with the western coast of the Red Sea and the 
spice region of the opposite shore. 

In this favored position, partly on the left, but principally 
on the right bank of the Nile, had grown up probably from 
a remote antiquity, the flourishing city of Thebes. Long 
content with a secondary position, it became, after the dis- 
memberment of the Memphian Monarchy, not only the capi- 
tal of an independent kingdom, but the chief seat of the 
second and most brilliant Egyptian civilization. 

Trade and Commerce Under Dynasty xi. — The 
political importance of Thebes dates from the kings of the 
xi and xii dynasties. The monumental traces of dynasty 
xi appear to show a series either of six or eight monarchs, 
who bear alternately the names of E?ia7itef o? Ante/, and 
Menthept or Mentuhotep^ and are followed by a Sankhkara. 
The tomb of Antef the Great shows him standing among 
his dogs and served by his chief huntsman. Mentuholep 
II is exhibited in the act of worshipping Khem f (Cham) ; 
he sank wells in the valley of Hammamat, to provide water 
for the caravans which passed to and fro between Coptos and 
the Red Sea. Sankhkara, not content with the land-trade, 
which had now for some time enriched the Theban mon- 
archs, and brought them the treasures of the African inte- 
rior, established a regular line of traffic, by way of the Red 
Sea, with the fertile and productive region known to the 
Egyptians as Punt — either Happy Arabia, or rather the 

*The term oasis — which is now the familiar appellation of those 
islands in the sea of sand where a stream of water bursts out, and 
gives life to some herbage and palm-trees, before it is again lost 
in the desert — is of Egyptian origin, and was first applied to the 
fertile spots which break the vast expanse of the Libyan Desert. 

Three of these were of considerable size : the Lesser Oasis, west 
of Middle Egypt ; the Greater Oasis, or Oasis simply, with a city of 
the same name (now ElKhargeh), west of Upper Egypt, and 
seven days'journey from Thebes ; and, much farther west, and in 
a more northerly position than either of these two, the Oasis of Am- 
mon, which the ancients called simply Ammon, or Ammonium. 
Here, amidst the Libyan natives, a ruling tribe, kindred to the 
Ethiopians, established a sanctuary of Amun, with the most famous 
of his oracles, by which Alexander was afterwards saluted as his 
son. 

t This is the first recorded instance of the worship of Ammon, 
destined to become, in the best time of Thebes, most decidedly 
the leading god of the entire Egyptian Pantheon. 



3 8 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. III. 

modern territory of the Somauli. In Punt, the Egyptian 
traders found an entrepot at which they were able to procure 
not only the products of the Somauli country itself, but all 
those which nations of the far east brought from Arabia, 
Persia, and perhaps even India, to be exchanged for the 
commodities of the region of the Nile. Sankhkara's new 
line of traffic continued during the whole of the Egyptian 
period, and even up to Greek and Roman times. 

The Monuments and Conquests of Dynasty xii. 
— This great dynasty was inaugurated by Amenemhat, a 
man full of activity and energy, who maintained peace at 
home and caused his name to be respected abroad. In his 
old age, he associated to himself his son Usurtasen, a youth 
of high military capacity. Usurtase?i is remarkable for his 
structures and for his conquests. Of the former the best 
known is the obelisk * of pink granite, at Heliopolis, which 
still stands on the spot where it was originally set, at least 
thirty-seven centuries ago. It is the earliest monument of 
the kind possessing any remarkable grandeur, that is known 
to us. At Thebes, he continued the construction of the 
great temple of Amnion, which his father had begun. At 
Tanis, at Abydos, and at Eileithyia, he erected shrines 
which, were adorned with carvings, inscriptions, and colossal 
statues. Under him, the southern boundary of Egypt was 
advanced probably as far as the Second Cataract. 

The Sesostris Legend. — Of Usurtasen's son and 
grandson, Amenemhat II and Usurtasen II, little is known. 
But the third Usurtasen was one of the most distinguished 
monarchs of the twelfth dynasty. The conqueror of the 
'miserable Kush,' he permanently attached to Egypt the 
tract known as Northern Nubia, or the entire valley of the 

* An obelisk is a tall, four-sided pillar, gradually tapering as it 
rises, and cut off at the top in the form of a flat pyramid. The 
shaft, in the Egyptian obelisks, is hewed out of a single block of 
granite. Some of these monoliths were more than 150 feet high ; 
they were generally covered with inscriptions and hieroglyphics. 
They are thought to have been meant as symbols of the sun's 
rays, and dedicated to the Sun-god. Of the styleof these monuments 
the American student may see an example in the Central Park, 
New York. This is one of the two obelisks known as Cleopatra's 
needles. They were originally set up at Heliopolis by Tothmes 
in. Augustus transferred them to Alexandria, where they re- 
mained until their recent removal, the one to America, the other 
to England. 



?B. C. 2500-il20. THE FIRST THfifiAN MONARCHY. 39 

Nile between the First and the Second Cataract. The forts 
built by Usurtasen in to protect his conquests, are still 
visible on either bank of the Nile, and bear the names of 
Koommeh and Semmeh. He took care to have his deeds 
commemorated, and the record of them, 'graven with an iron 
pen in the rock forever.' Subsequently, temples were built 
in his honor, he was put on a par with the gods Totun and 
Kneph ; mythic details clustered about his name — and the 
Sesostris legend grew up, 

Lake Mceris. — The productiveness of Egypt, as already 
intimated, is wholly dependent upon the overflow of the 
Nile. This inundation is remarkably regular. Now and 
then, however, the rains in Abyssinia upon which depends 
its annual overflow, fall less abundantly, and the rise of the 
river is varied accordingly. Whenever it fails of its average 
height, the upper valley lies parched and dry, and is wholly 
unproductive. On the contrary, when the rain is excessive, 
the consequences to the country are no less disastrous. The 
mounds erected to protect the cities, the villages, and the 
pasture lands, are washed away ; cattle are drowned ; houses 
collapse; human life itself is imperilled. To counteract 
these two opposite dangers, Amenemhat in accomplished 
the great work of hydraulic engineering which was known 
to the Greeks as Lake Mceris.* Taking advantage of a 
natural depression in the desert, to the west of Egypt, he 
constructed a vast artificial basin, covering an area of about 
480,000,000 square yards. A dyke 27 miles long, with an 
average height of 3ofeet,f formed the boundary of the reser- 
voir to the north and west, while southward and eastward it 
extended to the range of hills which separates the basin of 
the Fayoum and the Nile Valley. Through a canal cut 
partly in the rock, the surplus water of the Nile was con- 
veyed into the lake, thus affording a sensible relief in times 
of high flood. Through the same canal, when the Nile was 
low, a large tract of land along the Libyan range, which 
otherwise must have remained unproductive, was easily in- 
undated. At the same time, by means of the water of this 
lake, about three-fourths of the Fayoum region might be 

*This appears simply to be a name derived from Meri, the 
Egyptian word for lake. 

t It is said to have contained a mass of materials amounting to 
three-sevenths more than the cubic contents of the Great Pyramid 
of Ghizeh. 



40 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS Chapt. III. 

kept under constant cultivation. There was a system of 
sluices and flood-gates, whereby the flow of the water was 
regulated as the varied interests of agriculture required. 

The Labyrinth. — While engaged in the completion of 
this great work of utility, Amenemhat in also undertook 
some constructions of an ornamental character. Such was 
the palace which the Greeks and the Romans called a ' Lab- 
yrinth', and believed to be an architectural puzzle. It com- 
prised, we are told, 3000 chambers, half above ground, and 
half below. It had, besides, many colonnades and courts, 
covered with sculptures. At one corner was a pyramid 240 
feet high, and, according to modern measurement, 300 feet 
square at the base. This immense edifice is supposed to 
have been constructed for the use of congresses of the Egyp- 
tian magistrates. 

Increase of Luxury. — The impetus given to commerce 
by the monarchs of the twelfth dynasty, brought about an 
increase of luxury. Palaces were painted, and adorned with 
gold ; and carpets were spread upon their floors. Varieties 
in dress were introduced. While the simple linen tunic still 
contented the great mass of men, some wore, besides, a cape 
and a second tunic over the first, or even a long robe reach- 
ing nearly to the ankles. Bracelets and anklets, inlaid with 
precious stones, came into use. Field-sports were pursued 
with increased ardor. In moving about their estates, the 
grandees had themselves carried in highly ornamented lit- 
ters. At home, they amused their leisure hours by behold- 
ing the feats of professional tumblers, who were generally fair- 
haired and of light complexion, and are thought to have 
been Libyans from the northern part of Africa. 

Sepulchres at Beni-Hassan.* — The above details are 
mainly drawn from the paintings on the walls of the sepul- 
chral grottoes at Beni- Hassan, which belong to this age. 
While these pictures strongly resemble those of the Memphian 
monarchy, they clearly show progress in the greater number 
and perfection of agricultural and manufacturing appliances. 
Where formerly flocks of sheep were seen treading the 
seed into the soil, now the patient ox draws the plough. 
Here the wine-grower dresses the vine ; there he presses the 
savory juice from the grape. Men reap the flax, and women 
weave the fibres into fine linen. On one wall are depicted 
% 

*On the eastern side of the Nile, in Middle Egypt. 



?B. C. 212O-I966. THE SHEPHERD KI^GS. 41 

sheaves of wheat, in carts like those still used by the fella- 
hiir* on another the building and lading of large ships, 
the fashioning of costly woods into elegant furniture or 
of precious stuffs into garments — in a word, all the busy 
scenes of husbandry and navigation, commerce and handi- 
craft. 

Here first appears the military element — of which there 
is no trace in the tombs of Memphis ; while the negro-slaves 
attest the forays into Nubia, and the aquiline features, 
lighter complexion, and peculiar dress of some of the figures, 
indicate the foreigner from Arabia and Palestine. Most 
Egyptologists refer Abraham's journey into Egypt to the 
time of the twelfth dynasty ; and some of them, on the faith 
of a picture in one of the Beni-Hassan tombs, have ventured 
to assign it to the reign of Usurtasen II. 

The Hyksos Conquest. — How long the Theban mon- 
archs of Dynasty xiii continued to hold sway over the 
whole of Egypt, is not known. In course of time, an inde- 
pendent dynasty of native princes — the fourteenth of Man- 
etho arose in the western Delta, and reigned at Xois. 
This disintegration of Egypt invited attack from without. 
Under a leader named Set, invaders from Syria,f the 
Hyksos or Shepherds, so called on account of their nomadic 
habits, overran Egypt. They spread everywhere, burning 
the cities and demolishing the temples, J but made, how- 
ever, no permanent settlement much beyond Memphis. 
After subjecting the country at large, they allowed the 
Theban kings to retain a qualified sovereignty over Upper 
Egypt. The rest they ruled from Memphis at their own 
discretion. 



^Egyptian peasants. 

fProbably the Hittites, with allies from the countries along the 
route. 

JTo their ravages may be attributed the almost utter obliteration 
of all the public monuments of the earlier dynasties, to the twelfth 
inclusive, excepting the Pyramids, the obelisk of Usurtasen at Heli- 
opolis, and a few remains in the Fayoum and at Thebes. Of the 
ancient records of the country, only the inscriptions of unopened 
tombs, with the papyruses therein buried, escaped. It is supposed 
that professing a religion which was monotheistic, or nearly so, the 
conquerors took an extreme aversion to the Egyptian polytheism, 
and vented their hatred by an indiscriminate destruction of all 
the temples. 



45 Ancient Egyptians. chapt. in-. 

The Shepherd Kings.* — The government of the Shep- 
herd kings was at first barbaric and cruel. But, by degrees, 
the conquerors suffered themselves to be subjected by the 
superior civilization of the natives, and adopted their arts, 
their official language, their titles, and the general arrange- 
ment of the court ceremonial. Of the individual monarchs 
belonging to the Hyksos line, little is known. Set placed gar- 
risons in every considerable city, and fixed the tributes to be 
paid by the Egyptians. The bulk of his troops — 340,000 men 
— he stationed in a great fortified camp at Avaris, on the 
eastern frontier, to repel any attack which might be made in 
that quarter. Every summer he visited the camp, to train 
the soldiers in military exercises. Concerning the successors 
of Set until Apepi > or Apophis, we know nothing of impor- 
tance. Apepi, who was the last monarch of the line seems, 
for some cause or other, to have taken a dislike to his princely 
vassal of Thebes, and to have provoked a quarrel with him 
by unreasonable demands. As the Theban resisted, com- 
pulsion was resorted to. But the warlike energy of the 
Hyksos had declined. Instead of reducing the untractable 
vassal, they were first driven out of Egypt Proper, then 
shut up within the limits of Avaris, and finally compelled to 
evacuate the country. f It is believed that the arts and letters 
of Egypt were carried into Syria by these expelled Hyksos, 
and thence diffused by the maritime Phoenicians over neigh- 
boring Greece. 

Joseph and Apepi (b. c. 2090). — It is at present the 
general opinion that Joseph was brought into Egypt under 
Apepi. From the history of this patriarch given in Genesis^ 
we see how complete was the Pharaoh'sJ despotism under - 
whom he served. The princes will is absolute ; the Egypt- 

*To the Shepherd Rule Eusebius assigns only one dynasty, the 
xvii, with 103 years, Josephus, two, with 501 years, and Julius Afri- 
canus, three, with 953 years: and yet those authors purport to copy 
Manetho! 

fit must not be supposed that the whole mass of the Shepherd 
invaders were driven, with their warriors, from the soil of Egypt. 
Many were permitted to remain as cultivators of the soil which they 
had long occupied, in a condition very like that of the Hebrews. 

TThe word Pharaoh is not a name but a royal title, which is 
thought to .mean 'the son of Ra' — Ra signifying the Sun-God. 
Ra long occupied but a subordinate position among the Egyptian 
deities. Under Dynasty xviii, Ra became identified with Am- 
nion, and rose in rank. 



About b. c. 1906-1106, new TheBAN monarchy. 43 

ians are serfs ; the policy which made Pharaoh owner of the 
land, seems the last stroke in the subjugation of the country, 
especially of Upper Egypt On the other hand, the Phar- 
aoh of Joseph's time is no savage nomad, but a mild, civil- 
ized, and somewhat luxurious king. He holds a grand court, 
surrounded by cup-bearers, bakers, and attendants; he sits 
upon a throne, or rides in a chariot; wears a gold ring, is 
clothed in fine linen, and has royal gifts to bestow upon his 
favorites; he uses the common language of the country, and 
differs but little from the native Egyptian monarchs. 



CHAPTER IV. 

The New Theban Monarchy.* — About b. c. 1900-1100. 

Chief Rulers of Dynasty xviii. — The native Egyptian 
monarch who drove out the Hyksos, and became the found- 
er of the eighteenth dynasty, bore the name of Aahmes, 
which signifies child ot the moon. He was distinguished for 
his valor and activity, and inaugurated those splendid works 
which have immortalized his dynasty. The most remark- 
able of his successors were Thothmes 1 ; Queen Hatastt, a 
woman of extraordinary energy, and of a masculine mind;f 
Thothmes in, one of the greatest of Egyptian warriors and 
patrons of art; and Amenhotep 111, or Amenophis, who, as 
a builder, was hardly inferior to any of his dynasty. 

Wars and Conquests of Dynasty xviii. — In the 
south, the Theban kings of this dynasty effected the entire 
subjugation of Ethiopia, as far at least as the capital city of 
Napata. Their conquests in Asia, whither they pursued the 
retreating Hyksos, embraced not only the maritime plain of 
Western Palestine with Syria, but even the whole of Assyria, 
which was still occupied by petty states. Thothmes hi 
claims Ninive and Babylon as belonging to his empire; he 
certainly forced them to pay him tribute. Some recent 

*It embraces dynasties xviii, xix, xx. 

fShe reigned conjointly with her brother Thothmes ii, and acted 
as sole monarch during the minority of her second brother, Thoth- 
mes in. 



44 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. IV. 

historians make him also master* of the whole Mediterranean. 
But it seems more probable that his fleets traversed only the 
extreme eastern portion of the Levant, and that his maritime 
dominion did not extend further than the coasts of Syria, 
Cilicia, and Cyprus. Egypt, anyhow, became under the 
Pharaohs of this dynasty the first of the great eastern em- 
pires. 

Temple of Ammon, at KARNAK.f — Aahmes profited 
by the peaceful end of his reign to inaugurate the restoration 
of those public edifices which had suffered either from nat- 
ural decay or from hostile attack, during the last two or 
three centuries. The enterprise thus initiated was pushed 
forward by his successors, and Queen Hatasu brought to 
completion several works, which still excite the traveller's 
admiration. In the great temple of Ammon, at Karnak, she 
erected obelisks, which equal, alike in size and delicacy of 
workmanship, those of any other monarch. She built a 
temple, sustained on four steps, which is quite unique among 
Egyptian shrines, and is now known as that of Deir-el- 
BahirL This she connected with the older erection of Usur- 
tasen and with the Nile, by long avenues of crio- sphinxes 
in a posture of repose. 

After devoting full eighteen years to military expeditions, 
Hatasu's younger brother, Thothmes in, turned his atten- 
tion to inscriptions, obelisks, and buildings. With an elab- 
oration worthy of all praise, he recorded, at Karnak and 
elsewhere, several campaigns, enumerating all the particu- 
lars of the booty which he bore away, and of the tributes 
which he exacted of the nations under his rule. The great 
temple of Ammon was the special object of his care. The 

^Through the Phoenicians, who, they say, submitted to him on 
easy terms, and placed their naval forces at his disposal. But there 
is no evidence that the Phoenicians were then a great maritime 
state. 

fOn the ancient site of Thebes, four villages now mark the four 
corners of a quadrangle, measuring two miles from north to south, 
and four from east to west, within which lie the remains of the 
monumental city. This was probably the extent of the royal and 
sacred quarters of ancient Thebes. East of the Nile are Karnak 
on the north, and Luxor (El-Uqsor) on the south; while Kurneh 
and Medinet-Abou occupy the corresponding sites west of the river. 
At these four angles are four great temples, and the whole of the 
quadrangle appears to have been completed by four connecting 
avenues lined with sphinxes and other colossal figures. 



About b. c. 1900-1 too. &ew theban monarchy. 45 

central sanctuary built by Usurtasen of common stone he re- 
placed by the present granite edifice. To the temple on the 
south he added propylsea, in front of which he erected two, 
or perhaps four immense obelisks ; and in the rear, he con- 
structed a magnificent apartment of dimensions previously 
unknown in Egypt, the Hall of Pillars. 

More than twenty temples in various cities of Egypt, 
Nubia, and Ethiopia, were also his work. Altogether Thoth- 
mes in is said to have left more monuments than any other 
Pharaoh, excepting Rameses II. 

Temple of Ammon at Luxor. — For the scale and 
number of his buildings and sculptures, Amenophis in is 
almost equal to Thothmes III. Besides various other ele- 
gant constructions, he erected, at Luxor, the great temple 
of Ammon, one of the most magnificent in all Egypt, which 
he connected with the saCred quarter of Karnak by an 
avenue of sphinxes, wearing the sun's* disk on their heads. 
On the opposite bank of the Nile, he reared another temple 
in connection with which he erected his two most remark- 
ble works — the twin Colossi. 

The Twin Colossi. — The princes of dynasty xiii adorn- 
ed their buildings with statues of the gods or of themselves, 
which were colossal and full of dignity. The largest are the 
twin colossi of Amenophis Hi just referred to, which are still 
to be seen before the ruins of the temple, the entrance to 
which they once guarded. These sitting figures, represent- 
ing the king himself, were carved, each out of a single block 
of solid reddish sandstone. Their present height above 
the pavement is 60 feet; and the original height, including 
the tall crown worn by the Egyptian kings, must have been 
nearly 70. 

The 'Vocal Memnon.' — A peculiar fame has attached 
to one of these statues, called by the ancients the ' Vocal 
Memnon' from the sounds which it gave forth at sunrise. 
The Greeks supposed it to represent Memnon, the son of 
Aurora ; and the sounds were interpreted as his greeting to 
the sun, his father. It is thought that they were first emitted 
after the shattering of the statue by an earthquake, in b. c. 

*During this reign the theory that the material sun was the sole 
proper object of worship, and ought to supersede the other state 
gods, began to spread. But Amenophis iv was the first openly to 
bring forward the disk-worship as the sum and substance of the 
state religion, and to enforce it upon his subjects. 



46 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. IV. 

27, and that they ceased upon the repair of the image by 
Septimius Severus, about A. d. 196. The sound may have 
been the result of the sun's rays, either on the stone itself, or 
on the air contained in its crevices.* There seems to be no 
sufficient reason to attribute it to a fraud on the part of the 
Egyotian priests. 

Dynasty xix: Seti i. — The most remarkable princes 
of dynasty xix were the founder, Rameses (child of Ra), 
and his son and grandson, Seti 1 and Rameses 11. The 
war records of Seti 1 show him to have reestablished the 
empire won, and subsequently lost, by the preceding dyn- 
asty. He claims to have recovered the ancient boundaries 
of the empire, including Mesopotamia. 

Hall of Columns. — Great as were Seti's military tri- 
umphs, they were eclipsed by his architectural works. The 
grand Hall of Columns in the temple of Karnak, with its 
154 pillars, was almost entirely constructed by him. So vast, 
so lavishly ornamented, so well proportioned is this hall, that 
it has been pronounced not only the most beautiful of all the 
edifices grouped together at Karnak, but one of the eight 
or ten most splendid of all known architectural constructions. 

Seti's Tomb. — The erection of the Hall of Columns by 
no means exhausted the genius of its constructor. He 
raised or embellished many other temples, and built for him- 
self a most magnificent tomb. In this, the lavish profusion 
of the painted sculptures, and the exquisite care with which 
everything, down to the minutest hieroglyph, is finished, 
excite the admiration of the beholders; while the mystic 
character of the scenes represented, and the astronomical 
problems involved in the roof-pictures of the 'Golden Cham- 
ber,' add an element of deeper interest than any comprised 
within the range of mere art. Egyptologers deem Seti's 
tomb far the most interesting of all those wonderful rock- 
sepulchres which form so important a portion of the extant 
Egyptian monuments. 

Rameses ii. — His Wars and Razzias.— Associated to 
the throne at the age of ten, Rameses 11 surnamed Meria- 
men (beloved of Amen), became early accustomed to com- 

*Musical sounds produced by change of temperature are fre- 
quently given forth both by natural rocks and by quarried masses 
of certain kinds of stone ; and their occurrence has been placed on 
record by eminently scientific persons, Humboldt, Jomard, deRos- 
i&re, and others. 



ABOUT B.C. I90O-IIOO. NEW THEBAN MONARCHY. aj 

mand. As his father grew old and infirm, the conduct of 
affairs passed more and more into his hands, until at last — 
probably when he was about twenty-eight years old — he 
entered upon the full sovereignty. He is, of all the Egyp- 
tian kings, the one widest known.* Yet his military achieve- 
ments have been greatly exaggerated. He barely maintain- 
ed the limits of the Egyptian power established by Thoth- 
mes in and recovered by Seti 1. His longest war, that with 
the Khita, or Hittites, ended with a treaty of peace which 
bears a very amusing resemblance to those of our day — per- 
petual amity, alliance offensive and defensive, extradition 
clauses, equality of commercial privileges, and so forth. The 
acknowledgement of the Hittite empire shows the decline 
of Egpytian power. In reality, Rameses Meriamen owes 
his fame less to his warlike achievements than to the number 
and character of his monuments. To the erection of these 
he devoted his chief attention, throughout his long reign. 
One, and perhaps the main, object of his military operations, 
was the acquisition of captives to be employed in those vast 
constructions by which he strove to immortalize his name. 
During his early years, Asia furnished the bulk of these un- 
fortunates. Later, when his Asiatic wars were terminated, 
man -hunts were organized on a monstrous scale, throughout 
the whole country of the Soudan. Nearly every year, records 
are found of razzias, which start from Ethiopia, and return 
dragging after them thousands of captive blacks. 

Great Works of Rameses ii. — These may be divided 
under the two heads of works of utility and works of orna- 
ment. To the former class belong his Great Wall from 
Pelusium to Heliopolis, his canal from the Nile to the Red 
Sea, and many cities. Among these, conspicuous stands 
the new Tanis, where he established his residence. His 
works of ornament consist of temples, colossal statues, obe- 
lisks, and his tomb. 

The most remarkable of the temples erected by Rameses 
are the building at Thebes, once called the Memnonium, 
but now commonly known as the Ra??zeseum ; and the largest 
of the two rock temples of Jpsambul or Abu-Simbel, in 
Nubia. This last edifice 'is the finest of its class known to 
exist anywhere.'f Its facade is formed by four huge colossi, 

*Some have considered him the Sesostris of Herodotus, 
f Ferguson, History of Architecture. 



48 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS Chapt. IV. 

each 70 feet in height, representing Rameses himself seated 
on a throne, with the double crown of Egypt on his head. 
Nothing, it is said, can exceed their calm majesty and beauty. 
Colossal images of gods, likewise cut in the native rock, 
and elaborately painted, adorn the interior of the temple. 
The facade of the smaller sanctuary at the same place, ex- 
hibits also rock-hewn figures of great size. Four of them 
represent Rameses himself, the other two, his queen, Nefer- 
tari-mitenmut All these however are not, strictly speak- 
ing, statues, but rather figures carved in the rock. Of actual 
statues Rameses erected many. The most beautiful was 
the image of himself in granite, 54 feet high, which adorned 
the court of the Rameseum, the bust of which is now in the 
British Museum. The features, though of so huge a size, 
are finely chiseled, and marked by an expression of dignity 
and self-satisfaction. 

In the ornamentation of his buildings, Rameses especially 
affected the employment not only of colossi, but also of 
obelisks. Of the latter, some that have ceased to exist, 
adorned his sun-temple at Heliopolis ; and two were added 
by him to the Luxor edifice, one of which has long attracted 
the admiration of all beholders in the commanding position 
that it now occupies on the Place de la Concorde at Paris.* 

The bas-reliefs on the walls of the Rameseum exhibit in- 
teresting details of a siege, curiously like what we see on the 
Assyrian sculptures, and what we read of in Greek and 
Roman tactics. The besieged town is surrounded by a double 
ditch, over which are bridges. The assailants are provided 
with a testudo, with its wicker roof protecting the lerebra, or 
boring-pike. In one place the pioneers are seen attacking 
the gates with axes, in another the scaling-ladders are ap- 
plied; and, all the while, the archers clear the wall of its 
defenders. 

Rameses ii, a Patron of Letters. — Rameses 11 was 
a magnificent patron of letters, as well as of art. In one of 
his palaces has been discovered a sacred library, the volumes 
of which filled a great hall and suite of nine smaller rooms. 
Nine chief men of learning were attached to his person. At 
their head was a certain Kagabu, as Master of the Rolls, a 
man ' unrivalled in elegance of style and diction.' From the 

* It is of a beautiful Syenite granite. It has an elevation of 77 
feet, and is exquisitely carved and proportioned. 



ABOUT B. C. I9OO-IIOO. NEW THEBAN MONARCHY. 49 

pen of this Master,* we still possess the oldest fairy tale in 
the world, amoral story resembling that of Joseph and Puti- 
phar's wife, composed for the king's son, Menephtha. From 
the pen of another scribe, the poet Pentaour, we have an 
epic,f also the most ancient known, which celebrates in the 
true Vein of heroic hyberbole a personal exploit of Rameses. 

Ramesesii, the Oppressor of Israel. — The identity 
of Rameses n with the Pharaoh who oppressed the Israelites> 
is now admitted. While the Thothmeses and Amenhoteps, 
secure in their conquests abroad, seem to have cherished the 
Semites of the Delta as useful subjects, ' the new king over 
Egypt,, who knew not Joseph,' finding it necessary to recom- 
mence the Syrian and Mesopotamian wars, took alarm at 
this vast population kindred to his enemies. The fear, not 
only of their actual hostility, but of losing their services as 
slaves, dictated the means used to keep them in subjection. 
He required them to build the wall before mentioned from 
Pelusium to Heliopolis, and oppressed them ' with hard 
bondage/ requiring from them 'mortar, bricks, and all man- 
ner of service in the field.' 

To his subjects he was likewise harsh and despotic. Ex- 
isting documents prove that he ruled his numerous harem J 
with a cruelty worthy of the wretch who ordered the male 
children of Israel to be murdered; and they give ex- 
amples of the tyranny which he exercised over the judges, 
though the law of the land made them independent and 
inviolable. 

Condition of the Peasantry. — The state of the peas- 
antry is described in a correspondence between Ameneman, 
the chief librarian of Rameses H, and his pupil, the poet 
Pentaour. " Have you ever figured to yourself what is the 
life of the peasant ? Even before he has put the sickle to 
the crop, the locusts have blasted a part of it. Then come 
the rats and birds. If he is slack in housing his grain, 
thieves take it from him. Anon, the tax-gatherer arrives. 

* He may have helped to train Moses, the king's adopted grand- 
son, in ' all the learning of the Egyptians.' 

f The Egyptian historical pieces in verse, which have been dig- 
nified with the name of Epic Poems, are very short, not extending 
to much above 120 lines. 

% He appears to have had two or three principal wives, and 
perhaps as many as 20 concubines. He was the father of 59 sons 
and at least 60 daughters. 



50 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. IV. 

His agents are armed with clubs ; he has negroes with him, 
who carry whips of palm branches. They all cry, * Give 
us your grain ! and he has no easy way of avoiding their 
extortionate demands. Next, the wretch is caught, bound, 
and sent off to work without wages at the canals ; his wife 
is taken and chained; his children are stripped and plun- 
dered." 

Menephtha — Invasion of Egypt from Libya. — Ra- 
in eses II was succeeded by his fourteenth and eldest survi- 
ving son, Menephtha. In the fifth year of Menephtha's 
reign, a Libyan chief, Marmain, invaded Egypt with a nu- 
merous army, composed in part of native Africans, in part 
of foreign auxiliaries or mercenaries.* At first, the strangers 
were everywhere successful ; and the calamities which 
followed in their train, are described, in a contemporary doc- 
ument, as surpassing anything that Egypt had suffered even 
in the times of the Shepherd kings. Menephtha, who, in 
accordance with a pretended vision, kept himself shut up in 
Memphis, at last collected an army capable of encountering 
the enemy in the open field, and sent it under his generals 
against the invaders. A battle was fought, in which the 
Libyans and their allies were routed with great slaughter. 
The mass of the invaders were driven out ; but to some of 
them lands in the Delta were assigned. 

Menephtha and Moses— the Exodus (b. c. 1645). 
— Not many years after this event, Moses appeared before the 
court at New Tanis, for permission to conduct the Hebrews 
into the desert, to sacrifice to the Lord. Menephtha re- 
fused, and not only increased the task -work of the Israelites, 
but exacted more than they could perform. Moses, by a 
series of plagues, at last subdued the obstinacy of the 
Pharaoh. The children of Israel quitted Egypt, and entered 
the desert. But Menephtha had scarcely yielded when he 
repented of his weakness. Gathering a hastily mustered 
force — horse, foot, and chariots, he followed the Hebrews, 
whom he found at the seaside. But the Lord delivered 
them out of his hands. He caused his people to pass through 
the sea as on the dry ground; and, when the Egyptians 
pursued after them, they were swallowed up by the return- 
ing waves : 'neither did there so much as one of them remain.' 

* By some, these are supposed to have been Achaeans, Etrus- 
cans, Sardinians, Sicilians, and Ligures. 



ABOUT B. C. I960-IIOO. NEW THEBAN MONARCHY. «jl 

This catastrophe headed the period of decline, and the glo- 
rious rule of dynasty xix closed in obscurity. 

Architecture under Dynasties xviii and xix. — 
Egyptian architecture reached its perfection under those two 
dynasties. The Theban edifices were almost exclusively 
their work ; and intelligent travellers are struck by these, far 
more than by any other monument of the Pharaohs. Many, 
perhaps most, visitors are disappointed by the Pyramids. 
There is scarcely one whose heart is not stirred with a thrill 
of admiration, as he contemplates Karnak and Luxor. What 
gives the Theban palace-temples this preeminence, is the 
striking combination of mass and size with a profusion of 
ornamentation. In extent, they nearly equal the greatest of 
the pyramids, and impress the beholder hardly less by their 
gigantic proportions. They were, in point of elaborate 
adornment, almost unparalleled. Avenues of sphinxes, colossi, 
and obelisks led to buildings with vistas of gateways, courts, 
colonnades, and pillared halls, adorned within and without 
with painting and sculptures. Here were seen gods, and 
kings, and battle -scenes, and the graceful forms of all vegeta- 
ble life. 

Dynasty xx. — Rameses hi. — Conspicuous among the 
kings of dynasty xx is Rameses Hi, whose glorious reign 
threw a dying lustre over the last years in which Egypt had 
an empire. Rameses in expelled foreign invaders, restored 
the ancient boundaries" in Western Asia, encouraged mining 
operations and trade, stimulated production, dug a vast 
reservoir in the country of Aina ; and, according to his own 
account, 'planted trees and shrubs over the whole of Egypt, 
to give the inhabitants rest under their cool shade'. 

Piratical Hordes. — During the reign of Rameses in 
a number of widely separated people, partly dwellers in Asia 
Minor, partly inhabitants of the coasts and islands of Europe, 
combined to attack at once by sea and land, first Syria, then 
Egypt. The* Tanauna y Shartana y Sheklusha, Tulsha, and 
Uashesh\ united their squadrons into a fleet, while the 
* Purusata and Tekarti? advancing in countless numbers 
along the land, burst forth from the passes of Taurus, spread 
themselves over Northern Syria, and plundered the entire 
country of Khita, as far as Carchemish. Thence descending 
upon Palestine, on their way to Egypt, they were confronted 
by the gallant Rameses, who defeated them with immense 
slaughter. The allied fleet, however, undismayed by the 



52 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. IV. 

failure of the land army, at once made sail for the nearest 
mouth of the Nile, intending to ascend the stream and ravage 
the country. Fortunately, there were Egyptian ships to 
oppose them ; and Rameses, hurrying to the scene of dan- 
ger, arrived in time to take part in the great battle which 
frustrated the last hopes of the confederates, and placed 
Egypt once more in safety. 

Monuments of Rameses hi. — Rameses hi made an 
addition tothe great temple of Amnion at Karnak, and 
erected shrines in various places. But, of all his con- 
structions, the most magnificent was the southern Rameseum, 
or temple of Amnion, which he built at Medinet-Abou, and 
adorned with painted sculptures of his memorable exploits. 
Here are to be seen the pictures of battle-scenes, marches, 
and sieges. Here is the treasury, on the walls of which are 
recorded the king's riches. Here is the calendar of feasts 
for the first five months of the Egyptian year, which shows 
that more than one day in five was held to be sacred. 
Though less imposing than the structures at Luxor and 
Karnaky the temple of Rameses hi at Medinet-Abou has 
considerable merit in sculpture and architecture. It is 
under Rameses hi that we find the most luxurious chairs and 
sofas, the richest dresses, the most gorgeous river-boats, 
the most elaborately carved musical instruments. 

Decline of _ Egypt.— With Rameses in ended the 
period of Egyptian preeminence and glory. After him a 
long line of successors of the same name, with one Meri- Turn, 
occupied the royal palace, and wore the royal crown. But 
Egyptian history, during this period, is little more than a 
blank--no military expeditions, no great buildings reared, 
art quite forsaken, literature silent. With the growing 
power of the Assyrian monarchy, and the occupation by the 
Philistines of the maritime plain of Palestine, Egypt was 
thrown back upon her natural limits. Meanwhile, a greater 
share in her internal government was gradually assumed by 
the high-priests of Amnion, until at last one of them, Her- hor, 
advanced himself into the rank of King of Upper and Lower 
Egypt. 



ABOUTB.C.IIOO-75O. KINGDOMS OF THE DELTA. 53 



CHAPTER V. 

THE KINGDOMS OF THE DELTA (ABOUT B. C. IIOO-750). — 

THE ETHIOPIAN PHARAOHS (ABOUT B. C. 75°- 6 5o).— 

THE LATER SAlTE MONARCHY (b. C. 650-527). 

Dynasty (Tanite) xxi (about b. c. 1100-940). — The 
reign of the first Priest-king, Her-hor, appears to have been 
troubled by no internal disturbances. Under his grandson, 
Pinetcm, who fixed his court at Tanis in the Delta, a preten- 
der of the Rameside family arose at Thebes, and at first 
gained many partisans. But the disaffected returned to their 
duty, and the son of Pinetem quietly succeeded to the throne. 
No monument yet discovered throws light upon his govern- 
ment or that of his successors. We know only that at this time 
friendly relations were established between Egypt and Pales- 
tine, where an important kingdom had been set up by David 
and inherited by Solomon ; that a monarch of the Tanite line 
gave one of his daughters in marriage to the latter prince ; 
and that a brisk trade in horses and chariots was carried on 
between the Egyptians on the one hand and the Syrians and 
Hittites on the other. 

Sesac I (b. c. ? 940-918), or Sheshonk, the founder of the 
twenty-second dynasty, is the first Pharaoh that is men- 
tioned in scripture by his personal name. When Jeroboam, 
fleeing the vengeance of Solomon, sought refuge in Egypt, 
Sesac befriended him ; and later, upon his representation, 
was induced to attack the kingdom of Judah. At the head 
of 1 200 chariots, 60,000 horse, and footmen 'without number,' 
he invaded Palestine, entered Jerusalem, plundered the 
temple, and made Roboam a tributary. The record of this 
expedition is engraved on a wall of the great temple of Am- 
nion at Karnak. 

Disintegration of Egypt. — The reigns of the descen- 
dants of Sesac were undistinguished. At last, their authority 
was confined to the city and territory of Thebes. Meanwhile, 
the twenty-third and the twenty-fourth dynasty of Manetho 
reigned at Tanis and at Sai's; a certain Tafnekht held 



54 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. V. 

Memphis with the western Delta; and other cities set up 
rival kings. These divisions enabled Piaiikhi^ the Ethiopian 
monarch, by degrees to establish a sort of suzerainty over 
the whole of Eypt. 

The City of Bubastis. — Bubastis, the capital of Egypt 
under the twenty-second dynasty, was the sacred city of 
Bast or Pasht*, the goddess of fire. Herodotus, who saw 
Bubastis at the height of its prosperity, gives a pleasant des- 
cription of its annual festivity — the greatest in all Egypt, to 
which as many as 700,000 men and women came from all 
quarters in boats, amidst the noise of pipes and castanets, 
singing and clapping of hands, and contests of rude raillery 
with the villagers along the banks. He says that more grape- 
wine was consumed at this festival (for barley-wine was 
also largely made in Egypt) than in all the year besides. 
Bubastis stood, raised above t'he reach of inundation by a 
high embankment, on the Pelusiac or easternmost branch 
of the Nile, where the lofty mounds of Tel-Basta (the Hill of 
Pasht) look down upon the ruins of the great temple of the 
goddess in the low site described by Herodotus. 

Ethiopia. — The Natives. — Ethiopia proper became, 
after its subjection by the great Theban kings of dynasty xn, 
deeply imbued with Egyptian civilization. The Theban 
monarchical institutions, the priesthood and worship of 
Amnion, were introduced together with Egyptian arts, 
manners, customs, and mode of life. Nor was there a great 
difference of race between the two nations. The Ethiopians 
were of darker complexion than the Egyptians, and possessed 
probably a greater infusion of Nigritic blood. But both 
peoples sprung from a common stock, — Mesrain and Chus 
were brothers. 

Napata. — When the decline of Egypt enabled the 
Ethiopians to regain their independence and reclaim their 
ancient limits, there grew up at Napata, in Ethiopia, 
a monarchy kindred to the Egyptian in language, 
religion, and civilization. The city itself had a thoroughly 
Egyptian aspect, and Egyptian ideas prevailed among its 
inhabitants. The Theban god, Ammon-Ra, was recognized 
as the supreme deity of the country ; and the power of the 

*The animal symbol of Bast was the cat. Her statues have the 
"head of a lion. The Greeks indentified her with Artemis, and 
resorted much to her oracle. 



about b. c. 750-650. Ethiopian Pharaohs, 55 

priesthood became no less great at Napata than at Thebes. 

The Ethiopian Piankhi Ruler of Egypt (about b. c. 
750). — It is thought that during the troubles which resulted 
in the substitution of the Sesacs to the dynasty of Her-hor, a 
branch of the latter family transferred itself from Thebes to 
►Napata; and, intermarrying with the principal Cushites of 
the place, was accepted as a royal house. As Egypt became 
more and more disorganized, the power of these princes 
grew relatively greater, till one of them, Piankhi, resolved to 
turn the divisions of the neighboring kingdom to his own 
advantage. Encouraged by the old Egyptian party which 
prevailed in Upper Egypt, and which was averse to the 
religious innovations and foreign influences ripe in the Delta, 
Piankhi marched from Napata at the head of his army ; and, 
having been welcomed at Thebes as a deliverer, took Mem- 
phis by force, defeated the petty kings of Lower Egypt, 
and caused himself to be acknowledged lord paramount of 
the whole valley of the Nile. Among the native princes 
whom he left in possession of their crown, but who owed him 
allegiance, the two most powerful were Tafnekht, the ruler 
of Sai's and Memphis; and Osarkon, who kept his court in 
Bubastis. Upper Egypt seems to have been completely ab- 
sorbed into the kingdom of Napata, and to have had no subor- 
dinate or tributary monarch. Indeed such was the identity of 
religion and manners between the inhabitants of Upper 
Egypt and the Ethiopians, that to the former the latter 
would seem hardly so foreign as their own countrymen of 
the Delta, where the population was largely mingled with 
Semites and Libyans, and where foreign gods had long been 
worshipped. In fact, the internal conflict, during the 
Ethiopian rule, was much less between Egypt and Ethiopia, 
than between Ethiopia and Thebes on the one hand and the 
principalities of the Delta on the other. 

Revolt of Tafnekht. — Towards b. c. 735, some fifteen 
years after the conquest, Tafnekht threw off his allegiance ; 
and several other subject-monarchs, imitating his revolt, 
brought him their forces to swell the number of his army. 
Piankhi, however, soon reduced all the rebels. But he made 
a mild use of his victory and allowed the conquered chiefs to 
resume their several governments and to exercise the same 
power as before. 

Sabaco 1. — After the death of Piankhi, Egypt revolted a 
second time. The leader of the rebellion, on this occasion, 



56 Ancient Egyptians Chapt. v. 

was Bocchoris, a native of Sai's, and perhaps a son of Taf- 
nekht.* Bocchoris was unable long to withstand the superior 
forces of Ethiopia. Sabaco, who had succeeded Piankhi, 
used his rights as conqueror to the full. No longer content 
to rule the land as its suzerain, he transferred his residence 
to Egypt, and assumed the direct government of the country, 
except in some parts of the Delta where he still allowed na- 
tive princes a certain share of authority. 

Battle of Raphia (b. c. 719). — The time had come 
when Asia was to retaliate the injuries of the great Pharaohs 
of the 1 8th dynasty. For above a century and a half, the 
power of Assyria had been in the ascendant. Her armies, 
crossing the Euphrates, had brought Upper Syria, Phoenicia, 
Hamath, and Damascus under subjection. The territories of 
Israel and Judah, the only remaining barrier between Egypt 
and Assyria, were in their turn on the point of being ab- 
sorbed. Sabaco saw the peril of the situation. He encouraged 
Osee, king of Israel, to defy the power of Syria. He him- 
self, in b. c. 719, meeting the advancing tide of Assyrian con- 
quest on the southern limits of Palestine, engaged Sargon 
in a great battle, at Raphia; but was completely defeated, 
and forced to do homage to the conqueror. 

End of Ethiopian Rule (b. c. 650).— Sabaco was suc- 
ceeded (b. c. 712) at Thebes by Shabatok, his son ; and, at 
Napata by Tirhakah, his nephew. It was with these princes 
that Hezekiah negotiated, when the existence of the king- 
dom of Judah was threatened by Sennacherib. The troops 
which they brought, to the assistance of the Jews, were worst- 
ed at Altaku (b. c. 701) ; and only the miraculous slaughter of 
1 85,000 Assyrians mentioned in Scripture, saved Egypt from 
invasion. After the death of Shabatok (b. c. 698), Tirhakah, 
transferring his abode from Napata to Memphis, established 
himself as sole ruler of Egypt, and sought even to regain the 
suzerainty of Syria and Palestine. But he was attacked (b. c. 
672) by Asarhaddon, defeated, and compelled to take re- 
fuge in Ethiopia. Egypt was split up by the conqueror into 
twenty governments, over which rulers, some Assyrian, but 
most of them Egyptian, were appointed. Twice Tirhakah, 
issuing from his native fastnesses, expelled the foreign gar- 
risons, and reestablished his authority; but twice he was 
forced back into Ethiopia. Rutamen, his successor, re- 
sumed the task of maintaining the Ethiopian power in Egypt, 
and failed. The next king of Napata however, Miamen- 



B. C. 650-527. LATER SAlTE MONARCHY. 57 

Nut> for a time proved more successful. But, before long, 
the Egyptian sub-kings, forming a confederacy, shook off 
the foreign yoke; and about the year B. c. 650, the Ethio- 
pian rule came to an end. 

Depressed State of Egypt. — The long struggle of the 
Ethiopians and the Syrians for the mastery over Egypt, in- 
flicted on that country an amount of injury scarcely to be esti- 
mated. During the rapid advances and retreats executed by 
the armies of both powers, in a succession of campaigns, 
cities were taken and retaken, and many of the inhabitants 
massacred or carried into captivity. Such was the case with 
Memphis, Sai's, Mendes, Tanis, Heracleopolis, Hermopo- 
lis, Hasebeck, and most of the other towns. But none ap- 
pears to have suffered so much as Thebes. This great city, 
then the most magnificent in the world, passed into a by- 
word for depression and decay. In his last invasion of 
Egypt, Assurbanipal 'sacked it to its foundations.' Thebes 
never afterwards recovered her splendor and importance. 
Yet, in the country at large, under the Sai'tic monarchs of 
the next dynasty, an unlooked-for revival of prosperity soon 
took place. 

Later Saite Monarchy (b. c. 650-527). — Psamme- 
tichus.* — The prince, who reunited Egypt into a single 
monarchy, was Psammetichus, the founder of the great 
twenty -sixth dynasty. His sway, at first, extended 
only over Sai's and its immediate neighborhood. But, by 
the aid of foreign auxiliaries, chiefly Carians and Ionian 
Greeks, whom he obtained from Gyges, king of Lydia, 
Psammetichus defeated the combined forces of his brother 
monarchs, and established himself ' lord of the two Egypts, 
the upper and the lower country.' To strengthen himself on 
the throne, he permanently engaged the services of the same 
mercenary troops to whom he owed his crown, and settled 
them in two great fortified camps on either side of the Pelu- 
siac branch ot the Nile below Bubastis. Not content with 
thus departing from the traditional policy of Egypt in military 
matters, he gave an impetus to foreign commerce. "He re- 
ceived with hospitality," says Diodorus, "the strangers 
who came to visit Egypt. He loved Greece so much that 

*"In what follows," says Herodotus at this point, "I have the 
authority, not of the Egyptians only, but of others also who agree 
with them." 



5 & ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. drtAPT. V. 

he caused his children to be taught its language.* He was 
the first of the Egyptian kings who opened to other nations 
emporia for their merchandise, and gave security to voyagers. 
For his predecessors had rendered Egypt inaccessible to 
foreigners, by putting some to death, and condemning others 
to slavery." 

Sais — The Feast of Lamps. — As sole ruler of Egypt, 
Psammetichus continued to reside at Sais. The site of the 
city was specially suited for the policy which he inaugurated. 
Sai's was situated about forty miles from the sea, on the 
westernmost branch of the Nile. - By that branch lay the di- 
rect route of the Greeks into Egypt ; and on it stood Nau- 
cratis which was assigned for their abode. Sai's had a special 
attraction for the Athenians from the identification of its 
patron goddess, Neith, with their own Ath£n6 : their civic 
hero Cecrops, was said to be a native of Sai's ; and the 
Egyptian priests invented many stories to make the connec- 
tion closer. Pythagoras, Solon, and Herodotus, resorted to 
Sai's to learn the sacred traditions. The great historian has 
left a minute description of the Temple of Neith, with its 
tombs of the Sai'te kings, and an account of what must have 
been the most beautiful of the yearly festivals of Egypt. 
"At Sais, when the assembly takes place for the sacrifices, 
there is one night on which the inhabitants all burn a multi- 
tude of lights around their houses in the open air. They 
use lamps, which are flat saucers filled with a mixture of oil 
and salt, on the top of which the wick floats. These burn 
the whole night, and give to the festival the name of the Feast 
of Lamps. The Egyptians who are absent from the festival, 
observe the night of the sacrifice, no less than the rest, by 
a general lighting of lamps ; so that the illumination is not 
confined to the city of Sai's, but extends over the whole of 
Egypt." 

Conquests of Psammetichus. — Psammetichus no soon- 
er saw his power firmly established in Egypt, than he resolved 
to profit by the decline of Assyria, and recover the empire of 
Western Asia. At the very outset, he met with a stubborn 
resistance under the walls of Azotus, the key to the great 
military route. Herodotus tells us that he besieged that city 

*We learn from Herodotus, that Psammetichus made systematic 
provision for the use of Greek by entrusting Egyptian children to 
the care of his Greek soldiers. The children thus instructed be- 
came the parents of the entire class of interpreters in Egypt. 



B. C. 650-527. LATER SA1TE MONARCHY. 59 

for 29 years, before he could take it. But it is not probable 
that he blockaded it continuously during all that time. He 
may have attacked it frequently, or indeed annually; and his 
efforts may have been crowned with success only in the 29th 
year from the date of his first assault. From Azotus he pro- 
ceeded northwards along the Syrian coast, and reduced both 
Philistia and Phoenicia to a species of vassalage. 

Secession of the Warriors. — In the early part of this 
reign, an event took place which greatly reduced the native 
military strength of Egypt. The Egyptian warrior class, 
which was chiefly concentrated in three localities — near Pe- 
lusium, on the Lacus Maredtis, and at Elephantine — had seen 
with vexation the settlement of the Carians and Ionians in 
their new camps. Fresh favors heaped upon the strangers 
heightened their discontent ; and, when Psammetichus, in 
the invasion of Philistia, gave his mercenaries the post of 
honor on the right wing, the native soldiers deserted in a 
body to the number of more than 200,000. They made their 
way up the Nile to Ethiopia, which they regarded as the re- 
fuge of the institutions of old Egypt. Here they were heartily 
welcomed by the reigning monarch, from whom they received 
liberal grants of land. 

Nechao (b. c. 611—596): His Fleets and Ship- 
canal. — After a reign of more than 50 years, Psammetichus 
was succeeded by his son Neku, the Pharaoh Nechao of 
Scripture, one of the most energetic of Egyptian rulers. 
His first efforts seem to have been directed towards the con- 
struction of a powerful navy. By his orders ship-building 
was actively pursued in the Egyptian ports of the Mediter- 
ranean and the Red Sea ; and soon two fleets were com- 
pleted, such as Egypt had never before possessed. 

Meanwhile another work was attempted by the enterprising 
monarch. Seti and Rameses had established water com- 
munications between the two Egyptian seas by means of a 
canal carried from the Nile to the Gulf of Suez. This canal 
Nechao wished to reopen, and even to construct on a 
grander scale.* Thus his two fleets could be easily united, 
and employed against either Phoenicia or Arabia. But the 
enterprise proved more difficult than had been expected. 
From whatever causes, thousands of laborers — 120,000, 

*This enterprise will call to the reader's mind that achieved, in 
a. d. 1869, by M. de Lesseps — the opening of the Suez Canal. 



60 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. V. 

according to Herodotus — perished in a few months; and 
compassion for his subjects woes, or fear of their resentment, 
induced the monarch reluctantly to forego his purpose, and 
leave his great work unaccomplished. Herodotus says that 
he desisted on account of an oracle which warned him that 
* he was laboring for the barbarians.' 

Circumnavigation of Africa. — Foiled in this attempt, 
Nechao sought some other means of uniting his two navies. 
He despatched from a port on the Red Sea a body of Phoe- 
nician mariners, with orders to go around the African 
continent, and return to Egypt through the Pillars* of Her- 
cules and the Mediterranean. "The Phoenicians accordingly, 
setting out from the Red Sea, sailed into the Southern 
Ocean. When autumn came, they went ashore, and sowed 
the land, where they happened to be, and waited for har- 
vest ;f then, having reaped. the corn, they put to sea again. 
Two whole years thus went by; and it was not till the third 
that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules and arrived in 
Egypt. In this way was Libya (Africa) first known."]; But 
so much time was consumed by the voyage, that the discov- 
ery || proved of no practical service to Nechao. 

Expedition to Carchemish (b. c. 608.) — Wishing to 
secure his share of the spoils of the Assyrian Empire, 
Nechao set out (b. c. 608) to seize Carchemish, the key of 
the Euphrates. On his way thither, he was confronted, near 
Mageddo, by a hostile force under Josiah, king of Judah. 
This prince had taken advantage of the fall of Ninive, and 
the consequent unsettlement of Western Asia, to reunite 
under his sway the greater part of the old kingdom of David. 
In vain did Nechao seek to conciliate him. A battle ensued 
in which the Jewish army was defeated and Josiah mortally 
wounded. From the scene of his triumph, the victorious 
Egyptian pursued his march through Galilee, and Ccele- 
syria to the Euphrates. Having reached the goal of his 
expedition, and subdued the whole country as far as Carche- 
mish, he left a garrison in that stronghold, and returned to 
Egypt. On his way back, finding Joachaz, the son of Josiah, 

*The rocks of Gibraltar and Ceuta, at the straits of Gibraltar. 

fThis would require about three months in that climate. 

X Herod., iv. 42. 

||The feat of rounding the Cape of Storms, performed in b. c. 
610, is not known to have been repeated until a. d. 1497 — by Vasco 
de Gama. 



B. C. 65O-527. LATER SA1TE MONARCHY. 6 1 

in possession of the crown at Jerusalem, he deposed him ; and, 
in his place, enthroned his elder brother Joakim, on whom 
he imposed a tribute. 

Counter-Expedition of Nabuchodonosor (b.c. 605). 
—This recovery of the boundary of the Euphrates was 
but a dying gleam of military glory for the Saite Pharaohs. 
The empire of south-western Asia was destined for Nabucho- 
donosor, king of Babylon. In B. c. 605, that young prince, 
already reigning conjointly with his father Nabopolassar, 
crushed the Egyptian army at Carchemish ; marched on to 
Jerusalem, where he received the submission of Joakim ; 
and, at one blow, stripped Nechao of all his Asiatic con- 
quests. The subsequent revolts of Judea and Phoenicia 
against Babylon, and the prolonged resistance of Tyre, saved 
Egypt from an immediate invasion. But Nechao, in the 
emphatic language of Scripture, ' came not again any more 
out of his own country.' 

Apries* : Nabuchodonosor in Egypt (b. c. 568).— 
Apries, the second successor of Nechao, was so fortunate as 
to subdue Ethiopia. His next endeavor was to reestablish 
Egyptian influence over those Asiatic regions recently occu- 
pied by Nechao. For this purpose, he first encouraged 
Sedekiah, king of Juda, to throw off the Babylonian yoke. 
He then led an army into Judea, which compelled Nabucho- 
donosor to suspend for a time the siege of Jerusalem (b. c. 
586). Finally he attacked Syria, and sent expeditions 
against Sidon, Tyre, and Cyprus. His successes so elated him 
that he ' believed there was not a god who could cast him 
from his eminence.' But the vengeance of the king of 
Babylon, for being delayed, was only more terrible. In his 
37th year (b. c. 568), Nabuchodonosor invaded Egypt; 
overran the whole country 'from Migdol to Syen6'and the 
border of Ethiopia,' despoiled the shrines of Amnion in 
Thebes and of all the gods of Egypt ; made captive a large 
portion of the people ; . deposed and executed Apries ; and, 
remodeling the government, left Egypt a subject and 
tributary state — 'the basest of kingdoms, which would 
never more exalt itself to rule over nations.' 

Amasis (b. c. 568-529), whom Nabuchodonosor made 
king of Egypt in the room of Apries, began his reign under 

*The Pharaoh Ephree of Jeremiah, the Vaphris of Manetho, 
whose name is read on the monuments as Wahprahat (the sun 
enlarges his heart). 



62 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. V. 

discreditable circumstances, holding his crown as a Baby- 
lonian feudatory, and bound to the payment of a tribute. 
Content with this subordinate position, until the decline and 
fall ot Babylon gave Egypt wholly into his hands, he applied 
himself to foster that material prosperity which too often con- 
soles a rich country for the loss of liberty. His marriage with 
the daughter of Psammis confirmed his place in the Sai'te 
dynasty ; and he won the respect of his subjects by his genial 
and elastic spirit, combined with singular good sense, and 
a regular and just government. Of these qualities Herod- 
otus gives some amusing illustrations. 

" At first, the Egyptians held him in small esteem, as be- 
ing of no illustrious family ; but he succeeded in conciliating 
them by his address. Among his treasures, he had a golden 
foot-pan, in which his guests and himself were accustomed 
to wash their feet. Of this vessel he caused an image of a 
god to be made, and set up the statue in the most conspicu- 
ous part of the city. Thereupon the Egyptians flocked to 
the image, and paid it the greatest reverence. Amasis then 
called an assembly, and explained how the statue which they 
now so greatly reverenced, had been made of the foot-pan 
wherein they had been wont formerly to put all manner of 
filth. * And truly ' he went on to say, ' the same had hap- 
pened to him as to the foot-pan. If he was a private person 
formerly, yet now he had come to be their king ; he there- 
fore required them to honor and respect him.' By this 
means he won over the Egyptians, so that they thought fit 
to obey him. His mode of life was this : from early dawn 
to the time of the full-market (about 9 A. M.), he assiduously 
dispatched the business brought before him ; during the re- 
mainder of the day, he drank and joked with his guests, 
passing the time in witty and sometimes loose conversation. 
It grieved his friends that he should thus demean himself, 
and accordingly some of them chid him on the subject, say- 
ing to him, ' O King, thou dost but ill guard thy royal dig- 
nity, whilst thou allowest thyself in such levities. Thou 
shouldst sit in state upon a throne, and busy thyself with 
affairs the whole day long. So would the Egyptians feel 
that a great man rules them, and thou wouldst be better 
spoken of. But now thou conductest thyself in no kingly 
fashion.'" 

"Amasis answered them thus : 'Bowmen bend their bows, 
when they wish to shoot ; unbrace them, when the shooting 



THEIR INSTITUTIONS. fa 

is over. Were they kept always strung, they would break, 
and fail the archer in time of need. So it is with men. If 
they give themselves constantly to serious work, and never 
indulge a while in pastime or sport, they lose their senses, 
and become mad or moody. Knowing this, I divide my 
life between pastime and business.' " 

Condition of Egypt. — Herodotus tells us that, under 
Amasis, Egypt enjoyed the greatest prosperity, and that it 
contained 20,000 inhabited cities. The foreign and com- 
mercial policy of the Saite monarchs was carried out most 
fully by this prince. Eesides a permanent abode at Nau- 
cratis, below Sais, he assigned to the Greeks sites for their 
temples, and contributed money and works of art to the 
sanctuaries of Greece. He even took for one of his second- 
ary wives a Grecian lady of Cyrene, whom he treated with 
especial favor. 

This high prosperity and Greek influence are attested by 
the monuments of the age, which have a grace and refine- 
ment unsurpassed in Grecian art. But the foreign relations 
of Amasis, and the consciousness of power attained during 
a long reign, tempted him to a policy which may have 
hastened the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses— an event to 
be related in connection with the history of Persia. It oc- 
curred in B. c. 527 or 525, under Psamatik in, son of 
Amasis, and with it ended Egyptian independence. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The Institutions, Religion, and Arts of Egypt. 



Classes of the Egyptians. — The Egyptians were di- 
vided into the privileged classes and the common people. 
The privileged classes consisted of the priests and the war- 
riors, who, with the king, owned the whole soil of Egypt. 
The priests ranked first, and their office was hereditary. They 
kept the annals, civil as well as religious, and were the de- 
positaries of all that learning which formed ' the wisdom of 
the Egyptians.' To their service in the temples was added 



64 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. VI. 

a course of minute ritual observances. They shaved the 
head and body every other day, washed in cold water twice 
each night, and wore robes of linen and shoes of papyrus. 
Besides the rent of their lands, they received daily rations of 
cooked food, and contributions of oxen, sheep, and wine ; 
fish they were not allowed to eat. They were exempt from 
taxation. 

The soldiers formed the second class. Their profession 
also was hereditary. They lived upon the produce of their 
lands, the cultivation of which appears to have occupied 
their leisure. When on duty in the field, or employed about 
the king's person as his body-guard, they received special 
pay and rations. Foreign auxiliaries, at first, held but a 
subordinate position. Later on, a change took place ; the 
reliance of Psammetichus on his Greek and Carian merce- 
naries broke up the native military system, and ultimately 
left Egypt an easy prey to Persia. 

The rest of the people comprised, speaking generally, the 
classes of shepherds or herdsmen^ agriculturists, and arti- 
sans. The pictures on the monuments and in the tombs show 
us the old Egyptians engaged in all the agricultural and 
pastoral operations ; in the manufactures of glass, pottery, 
metal-work, and textile fabrics ; in the handicrafts of shoe- 
making and carpentry, masonry and building, carving and 
statuary ; in the occupations of shop-keepers, public weighers 
and notaries, fowlers, fishermen, brick-makers, common la- 
borers, and other avocations too many to enumerate. There 
was not, among them, that restriction to one profession, nor 
prohibition of intermarriage, which marks the true system 
of caste, as in India ; but still professions were usually here- 
ditary. 

. The King and the Royal Princes. — At the head 
of the state was the King, who, in consequence of the pop- 
ular belief in his divine descent, stood immeasurably above 
his subjects. But from this very opinion they had of him, 
arose one class of restrictions on his power. The divine 
Pharaoh must observe in his own life an order worthy of a 
god; and of this the priests .were the interpreters. His oc- 
cupations were arranged for every hour in the day ; his food 
and the quantity of his wine, his exercises and his pleasures, 
were all minutely set down in one of the books of Thoth. 
He was diligently instructed by the scribes in the moral 
precepts, and in the histories of eminent and virtuous men, 



THEIR INSTITUTIONS. 65 

contained in the sacred books. He was bound to use his 
power according to the law ; and, on the other hand, a solemn 
formula, daily pronounced by the priest, exempted the king 
from all accusation, and fixed the injury and penalty on those 
wr^ had been his ministers and who had taught him 
wrong. The succession of the crown was hereditary ; and 
the princes of the royal blood were distinguished by appro- 
priate titles and insignia. As the king was at once priest 
and soldier, so the princes were initiated into the learning of 
the priests, and they followed the military profession. 

Legislative Power— Criminal Code. — Legislative 
power seems to Jiave been vested in the king ; and several 
Egyptian monarchs had the reputation of wise legislators. 
The Greeks regarded the laws of Egypt as the expression 
of the highest wisdom. The general tenor of the criminal 
code may be inferred from the following details : voluntary 
murder, though committed only on a slave, was punished 
with death, as also perjury and a culpable refusal to defend 
a person attacked by assassins. False and slanderous accu- 
sers underwent the same chastisement that would have been 
inflicted on the accused person, if found guilty. Those who 
used false measures, had both hands cut off. Soldiers who 
deserted their standard or otherwise failed in their duty, 
were punished with degradation ; but they could redeem 
their honor by subsequent good conduct. Great infamy 
was attached to insolvency. No loan was obtained, except 
upon the delivery of one's father's embalmed body, as a pawn 
to the creditor ; not to redeem it, was a sort of impiety 
which deprived the culprit of the honors of burial. 

Judicial and Civil Administration. — Egypt en- 
joyed the blessing of a judiciary independent of the crown. 
All trials were conducted in writing, and with very solemn 
forms. The judges were probably of the priestly order. 
There was a supreme court of thirty ; ten members being 
sent from each of the three cities of Memphis, Heliopolis, 
and Thebes. 

The civil administration was conducted by an army of 
officials, belonging to the great corporation of the Scribes, a 
branch of the sacerdotal order. Their official orders and 
reports are among the most interesting of the existing papy- 
ruses. The chief departments were those of public works, 
war, and finance. Taxes were collected in kind — the three 
divisions of arable lands, marshes, and canals paying their 



66 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. ChApt. VI. 

dues in corn, cattle, fish. Each nome had a governor, whom 
the Greeks called Nomarch, and under him were local mag- 
istrates called Toparchs. 

The Religion of Egypt.- — Religion was the great bond 
of the Egygtian society. It permeated the whole existence 
and life of the people, being in a thousand ways wound 
up with their literature and science, their arts, laws, and cus- 
toms. Its foundation was an original faith in the unity of 
God, perverted into polytheism by the impersonation of his 
attributes. As these were .variously selected by the priest- 
hood as objects of worship, in different parts of the country, 
a varied polytheistic system grew up. All the deities, at 
first, were local; most of them ever remained such, but 
some became common to all Egypt. 

Egyptian Pantheon. — Ammon, Khem, Ra, Phthah, 
and Osiris, were the chief divinities of the Egyptians. To 
the learned and the initiated, they were not really separate 
and distinct beings, but represented — Amnion, the divine 
incomprehensibility; Khem, the generative power in nature ; 
Ra, the supreme God acting in the sun and warming the 
earth ; Phthah, the creative hand ; and Osiris, the divine 
goodness. 

Ammon was the great god of Thebes. We have seen 
how the Theban kings vied with one another in erecting 
temples in his honor, or embellishing his shrines. His cal- 
endar was crowded with festivals, one day in five being held 
sacred. Ra, the sun in his meridian splendor, and Khem, 
became, in course of time, identified with Ammon. 

Phthah, the shaper and framer of the material universe/ 
was the special god of Memphis ; but he was adored, and 
figures of him are found, in all parts of Egypt. 

Osiris, the personification of the divine goodness, the 
judge of the souls of men upon their entrance into Hades, 
enjoyed a worship still more universal than Phthah ; while 
he also had special cities which were peculiarly devoted to him. 
Isis, his wife and sister, shared with him the recognition of 
all the Egyptians. 

Among the secondary deities, may be mentioned Hones, 
the ' rising sun/ a child of Osiris and Isis ; Neith, the per- 
sonification of the divine intellect, who was the special god- 
dess of Sal's ; Bas( or Pasht, the wife of Phthah, reverenced 
at Thebes and Memphis, but chiefly at Bubastis, which was 
wholly dedicated to her ; and, lastly, Thoth, the god of let- 



tMEiR kELlGidN. 67 

ters and the lord of truth, who acted an important part in 
the judgment of the dead. Thoth was like Osiris, though 
in an inferior degree, an object of universal worship through- 
out Egypt. 

The Egyptian pantheon included many other secondary 
gods, a few of whom, as Set-Nubi and Apepi, seem to have 
been personifications of evil. It also contained a large number 
of inferior deities, resembling the Greek and Latin dcemoncs 
and genii '; Anubis ', Amset> Astes, etc., belonged to this third 
or lowest order of gods. 

Triads of Deities. — A curious feature of the Egyptian 
religion, was the preference shown for the worshipping of 
gods in triads, or sets of three. In almost every important 
town, there was such a triad, which received the chief wor- 
ship of the inhabitants. At Thebes, for instance, it consisted 
oiAmmon-Ra, Maict, and Chonsu ; at Memphis, of Phthah> 
Seckhct, and Turn ; at Abydos, of Osiris, Isis, and Horus, 
the most popular deities of all Egypt. The members of a 
triad were not on a par. The first god had a decided pre- 
eminence ; the last occupied a thoroughly subordinate posi- 
tion ; and the middle deity was generally a goddess. 

Worship. — Worship comprised three things — prayer, 
praise, and sacrifice. Sacrifice was of two kinds, bloody or 
unbloody. Unbloody sacrifice was the more usual. It 
consisted of bread, flour, cakes, oil, honey, fruit, incense, and 
wine. Flowers, also, were offered in bouquets, in basketfuls, 
and in garlands — the lotus and papyrus being among the 
plants in highest favor. 

Symbols of the Gods and Animal Worship. — The 
Egyptians early sought to trace resemblances in certain ani- 
mals to certain attributes of the Divine Nature ; and thus 
were led to assign to particular deities the heads of these 
creatures, or even their entire form. In this way, the ram 
became the symbol of Amnion ; the bull, of Phthah ; the 
hawk, of Ra and Month* ; the ibis, of Osiris ; the sacred 
beetle, of Khepraf ; and many others. 

In this symbolism, we may trace the origin of that quasi- 
divinity which the Egyptian people attributed to a variety 
of beasts, birds, fishes, reptiles, and insects. The worship 
of many animals was purely local ; and creatures consecrated 

* Month was the piercing power of the sun's beams. 
~\Kfiepra y the creator, or the creative energy of the sun. 



68 ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. VI. 

in one nome were hunted down in the next. The hawk, 
ibis, and white cows, were reverenced throughout Egypt, 
as the symbols of Ra, Osiris, and Athor. The cat, which 
was sacred to Bast, was held in like honor ; and, under one 
of the last Ptolemies, when the fate of Egypt hung on the 
friendship or anger of Rome, the king himself could not save 
a Roman soldier, who had killed a cat, from the enraged 
people. 

In each locality where any kind of animal was sacred, some 
individuals of the species were attached to the principal 
temples, where they had their special shrines or chambers, 
and their train of priestly attendants, who carefully fed them, 
cleaned them, and saw generally to their health and comfort. 
But it was only in three cases, viz., of the bull Apis at 
Memphis, the bull Abnevis at Heliopolis, and the goat at 
Mendes, that the sacred animal was believed to be the actual 
incarnation of a deity. 

The Bull Apis. — Apis, the supposed incarnation of 
Phthah, and held in most honor, was revealed by certain 
marks — a white triangular spot on the forehead, a half-moon 
upon the back, and a swelling in the shape of a scarabaeus 
on the tongue. He was kept in a splendid building ; and to 
be one of his priests was deemed most honorable. When 
he died, all Egypt went into mourning; and, when anew 
Apis was manifested, the land gave itself up to festivity and 
joy. The dead Apises were embalmed, and buried in a 
vast subterranean sepulchre^ set apart for this purpose. This 
same practice of embalming and preserving their bodies, was 
extended to all sacred animals. 

Belief in the Immortality of the Soul. — The doc- 
trine of the immortality of the soul was ever retained in 
Egypt. Hence the practice of embalming, which was ac- 
companied with prayers for the preservation of the vital germ 
in the uncorrrupted body. Hence those ^symbols of the 
future life and resurrection depicted in Egyptian tombs. 
Hence, upon the coffins, those representations of the judg- 
ment of the dead, under the figure of weighing the souls. 
This awful ceremony is conducted by Osiris and his 44 as- 
sessors in the hall of the twofold justice. The balances are 
held by Horus and Anubis. A figure of the deceased is 

Jits discovery by M. Mariette has yielded the most important re- 
sults for Egyptian history and chronology. 



THEIR RELIGION. 69 

placed in one scale, to be weighed against an image of Thoth 
in the other ; and the same deity registers the result. The 
reprobate is condemned to annihilation. He is beheaded by 
Horus on the 7iemma ) or infernal scaffold, and devoured by 
a monster with the head of a hippopotamus. But, before 
his annihilation, he is subjected to a long course of torments, 
and returns to act as an evil genius upon earth, where his 
abode is in the bodies of unclean animals. The justified, 
after expiating his venial sins by a long series of ordeals, 
labors, and conflicts with monsters in Ker-neter, the Egyp- 
tian Hades, shares the bliss of Osiris, and is finally identned 
with that deity. 

Ritual of the Dead. — The exposition of this doctrine, 
and all the rites and ordeals connected with it, are contained 
in a great religious book, which is the most important of the 
remains of Egyptian literature. This work, which was 
gradually compiled, from the earliest to the latest age of the 
monarchy, is entitled the Ritual of the Dead, But its 
Egyptian title was The Ma?iife station to Light, viz., the 
book revealing light to the soul. Incidentally to its main 
subject, it supplies a code of Egyptian morals, in the declar- 
ations made by the soul, before its judges, of the sins it has 
abstained from, and the good deeds it has done. Among 
the latter we read, "I have given food to the hungry ; I have 
given the thirsty to drink ; I have furnished clothing to the 
naked." 

Moral Depravity. — The theoretic perfection of the 
Egyptian moral code must not blind us to its exceedingly 
lax practice. With this profound knowledge of what was 
right, so much beyond that of most heathen nations, the 
morals of the Egyptians were rather below, than above the 
common level even of pagan times and countries. The 
women were notoriously immoral, and the men openly im- 
pure. Though industrious, cheerful, and not wanting in 
family affection, the Egyptians were cruel, vindictive, treach- 
erous, prone to superstition, and profoundly servile. The 
use of the stick was universal ; inferiors and slaves every- 
where performed their work under fear of the rod. Among 
the upper class, sensual pleasure was looked upon as the 
end of existence. False hair was worn ; dyes and cosmetics 
were used ; dress was magnificent ; equipages were splendid ; 
life was passed in feasting, sport, and a constant succession 
of enjoyments. 



70 



ANCIENT EGYPTIANS. Chapt. VI. 



Egyptian Literature. — The inscriptions and papy- 
ruses hitherto discovered and deciphered, already form a 
mass of literary matter, embracing a great variety of sub- 
jects — historical and religious compositions, poems, travels, 
epistolary correspondence, romances, orations ; treatises on 
morals and rhetoric ; collections of proverbs ; catalogues of 
libraries ; books on astronomy, mathematics, and medicine ; 
and various other works. But the literary excellence of these 
productions is not equal* to their extent or variety. The 
historical compositions are written in a forced and stilted, or 
in a dry and wholly uninteresting style. The romances are 
full of most improbable adventure. The scientific treatises, 
geometry excepted, exhibit no great degree of proficiency. 
Poetry, however, was in a more advanced state, though the 
pieces are generally short. The epistolary correspondence 
presents much that is both amusing and instructing. 

Egyptian Art — Architecture, Sculpture, Paint- 
ing. — The art in which the ancient Egyptians most excelled, 
was architecture. The meaning of this art, in Egypt, is 
everywhere apparent. Its inspiring motive was religion. Its 
purpose was monumental. Its prevailing characters are sta- 
bility, repose, dignity, and grandeur. Egyptian edifices look 
like the work of men, who, believing in the immortality of 
the soul and of the body, sought to give eternity to matter. 
That they have endured for periods reaching to 4,000 years 
and upwards, is the best proof of the excellence both of their 
materials and of their form and structure. 

In general, Egyptian sculpture was symbolical, rather than 
the direct imitation of nature. It affected an attitude of re- 
pose, expressive of religious peace. In the representation of 
the human form, it suppressed details rather for the sake of 
simple majesty, than from ignorance or want of skill. For 
we often find the execution of details, in figures of animals, 
carried well-nigh to perfection. The great works of the best 
age, carved from the most intractable of stone, evince the 
highest technical skill, as well as untold labor. 

In the art of painting, the Egytians never rose to emi- 
nence. With them, painting was almost confined to the 

* It is just to observe that the Egyptian language is still imper- 
fectly understood ; and that the true force of many expressions in 
the original not only cannot be rendered in a modern translation, 
but is often missed even by the advanced scholar. Hence no final 
judgment can yet be passed on Egyptian literature. 



THEIR LITERATURE AND ART. 



71 



coloring of the bas-reliefs, and to the decorations of 
buildings. They used scarcely any colors but white, black, 
red, blue, yellow, and green. They were ignorant of the rules 
of perspective. Yet, in the varied scenes of daily life de- 
picted^on the walls of tombs, some figures are well drawn, 
and the general effect is not unpleasant. 



PART III. . 



THE PHCENICIANS. 



From the Dawn of their History to their Subjugation 
by the Assyrians. 

Phoenicia. — Phoenicia is nothing- more than a narrow- 
strip of coast, which lies among the foot-hills of the chain of 
Lebanon. Its northern limit is usually fixed at the island of 
Aradus; the southern, at White Cape, about six miles below 
Tyre, and sometimes at Mount Carmel As Phoenicia lay 
out of the military road * from Egypt to the Euphrates or 
to the valley of the Orontes, its situation secured for it com- 
parative tranquillity, amidst the almost incessant wars to 
which the possession of Syria gave rise. 

Its Resources. — Besides its advantageous position for 
commerce, Phoenicia had abundant resources within itself. 
Situated in the fairest part of the temperate zone, between 
the breeze of the Mediterranean and the heights of Lebanon, 
with a surface varying from level plains, through undulating 
hills, to high mountains, it possesses a climate and produc- 
tions equally remarkable for excellence and diversity. The 
soil is fertile. When under proper cultivation, the lowlands 
bore rich crops of corn; and the olive, vine, and fig-tree, 
were proverbial products of Phoenicia. Its forests, which 
cover the sides of the mountains, and which furnished timber 

* This road struck inland from the maritime plain of Palestine, 
south of Damascus ; while that which led to Hamath and the val- 
ley of the Orontes — the land of the martial Hittites — and in later 
ages to Antioch, passed through Ccelesyria, behind Lebanon. This 
great mountain rampart severed the Phoenician coast from the con- 
stantly disputed region of Syria. 

7 73 



74 



THE PHOENICIANS. 



for the Phoenician navy, consist of pine, fir, cypress, and 
evergreen oak, as well as of the cedar of Lebanon.* 

The coast of Phoenicia supplied important fisheries. Most 
famous of all was the fishery of the murex, the molusk from 
which was obtained the Tyrian purple. The writings of the 
Assyrian kings often mention the skins of sea-calves, which 
they procured from Phoenicia, to use as hangings and cover- 
ings in their palaces. Nor ought we, in this connection, to 
forget the worship of the Fish-god, which prevailed along 
the whole coast. 

Cities of Phoenicia — Their Relation to Egypt.— 
The chief cities of Phoenicia were : Aradus, Simyra, Ortho- 
sia, Tripolis, Gebal (^Byblus), Berytus, Sidon, Sarepta, Tyre, 
and Acco (JPtolemais). They at no time formed a single 
centralized state, or a complete political union. Their vary- 
ing relations to one another will appear from the ensuing 
history. The most ancient settlements of the Phoenicians 
on the Syrian coast, are referred to the period immediately 
preceding the time of Abraham ; those emigrants came from 
the shores of Ihe Persian Gulf. From the first, they turned 
their attention to maritime commerce, and soon began to 
apply themselves to distant voyages. From the great The- 
ban kings of the 18th and 19th dynasties, they purchased 
peace by placing their maritime enterprise and manufacturing 
industry at the service of the Pharaohs. The tributes, the 
arts, and the riches of Phoenicia, are often mentioned in the 
hieroglyphic inscriptions of this age ; in no records do the 
Phoenicians appear as enemies of Egypt. Doubtless the 
Egyptian kings, who needed their services, treated them 
with favor, and granted them valuable privileges in order 
to secure their fidelity. They themselves, with true mercan- 
tile spirit, preferred to reap the material advantages arising 
from the protection of a great empire, rather than to indulge 
their pride by an empty assertion of independence. Pro- 
vided that their trade flourished, and they retained their 
laws, religion, manners, and customs, the Phoenicians appear 
to have submitted to a state of vassalage with scarcely any 
opposition. 

* The cedar of Lebanon is now confined to one solitary grove, 
consisting of no m©re than about 400 trees, of which some 12 are 
very large and old, 50 of middle size, and the rest younger and 
smaller. 



SUPREMACY OF SIDON. 75 

The Phoenician Alphabet * — An important result of 
the intercourse between Egypt, and Phoenicia was the Phoe- 
nician alphabet, which we use to this day. From the mul- 
titudinous characters — ideographic, syllabic, and alphabetic 
— of Egyptian writing, the practical Phoenicians borrowed 
just what was sufficient for mercantile transactions — the small 
group of symbols used by the Egyptians as alphabetic letters. 
This treasure the Phoenicians not only communicated to 
their immediate neighbors and kinsfolks, but to the islands 
and coasts of Greece. Greek legend preserved to the last 
the tradition that the alphabet had been the gift of Cadmus, 
the Phoenician 'from the East.' Beyond the alphabet and prob- 
ably the use of weights, measures, and coined money, 
Europe owes little to Phoenicia, 

Supremacy, Colonies, and Commerce of Sidon. — 
The policy of Egypt towards her subject-states, made her 
suzerainty quite compatible with the existence of a native 
dynasty of'Sidonian kings, who themselves exercised sover- 
eignty over most of the Phoenician cities. The highest 
commercial prosperity of Sidon, belongs to this very period 
of the supremacy of the Pharaohs. She, at that time, planted 
colonies in Crete, Cyprus, and Asia Minor, and formed naval 
stations at Rhodes, Thera, and Cythera. Her merchants 
were found along the shores of Thrace, by the rivers of Col- 
chis, and among the mountains of Caucasus, bartering with 
the natives for their gold and silver, their iron, lead, and tin, 
the last of which was needed for the bronze implements, 
weapons, and armors then in use. For these.and other prod- 
ucts of their voyages, the Phoenician navigators found mar- 
kets in Egypt, and especially on their own coast, whence 
caravans traded with Syria and the regions beyond the Eu- 
phrates. 

Decline of Sidon. — About the time of Rameses 11, 
when the Pelasgo-Tyrrhenians began to acquire their naval 
supremacy in the Mediterranean, the maritime power of 
Sidon declined proportionately. The Philistines, too, soon 
grew strong enough not only to deprive the Phoenicians of 
much of the land traffic with Egypt, Assyria, and Arabia, 
but even to vie with them at sea. There is a tradition that, 
toward the end of the 13th century b. C, the Philistines, 
under the leadership of Ascalon, sent a fleet against Sidon, 

* A. H. Sayce, in the Contemporary Review. 



76 THE PHOENICIANS. 

took that city by storm, and razed it to the ground. Though 
Sidon was rebuilt, it never recovered its ancient position. 
Henceforth the supremacy belongs to Tyre. 

Supremacy of Tyre. — The conquests of the Israelites 
and the Philistines, on the south, and of the Aramaean Syrians 
on the north and east, appear to have caused the Phoenician 
cities to unite in a league, under the Supremacy of Tyre.* 
Whilst each town preserved its own government for local 
affairs, the king of Tyre, as suzerain, decided all business re- 
specting the general interests of Phoenicia, its commerce, 
and its colonies. But, in this, he was assisted by deputies 
from the various states ; and the annual embassies to the 
temple of Melcarth henceforth assumed apolitical character. 

Fleets, Soldiers, and Colonies of Tyre. — The 
population of Tyre being wholly inadequate to all the re- 
quirements of commerce, industry, and national defence, the 
Tyrians hired strangers to man their fleets, to form their 
garrisons, and to serve in their armies. They recruited 
their soldiers chiefly from among the Aradians (or Arvadites) 
and the Liby-Phcenicians. Tyre had also in her service 
Persians, Lydians, and Ethiopians. The first voyages of 
the Tyrians to the west, are contemporary with their rise to 
political superiority. From Utica, their chief settlement in 
Africa (founded B. C. 1158), they proceeded westward along 
the coast of Numidia (Algeria) and Mauritania (Morocco), 
and founded the famous colony of Gades (Cadiz). This 
was the great emporium for their commerce with the south 
of Spain — perhaps the Tarsis of Scripture, whence, besides 
honey, wax, and pitch, they obtained the gold, silver, iron, 
lead, copper, tin, and cinnabar of the Andalusian mines. 
Besides Gades, they founded Calpe and Carteia (Gibraltar 
and Algesiras) on the Straits, and Malaca (Malaga) with 
Abdera and many other settlements on the southern coast of 
Spain. These remote colonies were connected with the 
mother-country by the midway station of Melita (Malta), 
and that of Caralis (Cagliari) in Sardinia. The Tyrians had 
also commercial factories on the coast of Sicily. Thus they 
commanded all the shores of the western Mediterranean, 
except the great bay between Spain and Italy, of which the 

* Tyre stood on a small island, about half a mile from the shore. 
About 3 miles to the south, on the main-land, was Sarra, after- 
wards Palsetyrus (old Tyre). The name of Tyre was derived from 
Tsur or Tzor, the Phoenician word for rock. 



SUPREMACY OF TYRE. 77 

Tyrrhenians were masters. The naval power of the latter 
was not broken, till both Carthage and the Sicilian Greeks 
were strong enough to encounter them with success. 

Hiram. — Tyre first appears distinctly as a powerful king- 
dom, , about B. c. 1,000. Her king, Hiram, is represented 
in close amity with David, to whom he sent carpenters 
and masons to build his palace. The alliance of Phoenicia 
with Judea, 'perpetuated under Solomon, was based on a 
community of interests. The Philistines and the Syrians 
were the enemies alike to Israel and Phoenicia, and both 
countries were protected by the conquests of David. While 
the Jewish kings enjoyed the fruits of Phoenician commerce, 
Phoenicia depended on the agricultural wealth of Palestine. 

Hiram's Great Works. — In the fragments of Phoeni- 
cian historians, the reign of Hiram is mentioned as the 
epoch at which Tyre reached her climax. He rebuilt, with 
unexampled splendor, the great temple of Melcarth and the 
adjacent shrine of Astarth6. By means of an artificial 
embankment, and by connecting Tyre with the sacred 
islet of Melcarth, he more than doubled the extent* of the 
city. He surrounded it with strong ramparts, dug a new 
harbor, and built for himself a magnificent palace. These 
works were completed in time to enable Hiram and his 
trained artificers to aid Solomon in rearing those which he 
undertook at Jerusalem. 

Foundation of Carthage. — The death of Hiram was 
followed by intestine troubles of many years' continuance. 
At last, Ethbaal, the priest of Astarth6, established a new 
dynasty at Tyre. Jezabel, a daughter of this monarch, was 
married to Achab, with disastrous results to both the 
Hebrew kingdoms. It was during the above mentioned 
troubles that occurred the flight of Dido, or Elissar, and her 
foundation of Carthage. The wish of her dying father, 
Matgen, had been that she should reign conjointly with her 
younger brother Piimeliun (Pygmalion). But the populace, 
desirous of changing the aristocratic form of government, 
proclaimed her brother sole monarch, and surrounded him 
with councillors of the democratic party. Elissar, excluded 
from the throne, married Zicharbaal (Sichseus), the high- 
priest of Melcarth, whose position placed him at the head of 
the aristocracy. But Piimelium caused his rival Zicharbaal 

*It was now three quarters of a mile long, and a half mile broad. 



7 8 THE PHOENICIANS. 

to be assassinated ; whereupon Elissar, with the chiefs of the 
aristocracy, formed a conspiracy to avenge her husband. 
Disappointed of her object, she left the city with her 
partisans, fled* to Africa, and bought on the Libyan shore 
the old Sidonian colony of Cambe. Her settlement was 
called Kiryath-Hadeshath (the new city), which became in 
Greek Carchedony and in Latin Carthago, 

Relations of the Phoenicians with the Assyr- 
ians. — -From the time of Ethbaal, the great kings of the old 
Assyrian monarchy began to extend their power as far as 
Phoenicia. " The kings of Tyre, Sidon, Gebal, and Aradus," 
says Assurnasirpal, " humbled themselves before me ; from 
them I received tributes which consisted of silver, gold, tin, 
bronze, instruments of iron, stuffs dyed purple and saffron, 
sandal-wood, ebony, and seal-skins." Salmanasar 11 also 
and his grandson Rammannirari Hi enumerate among the 
countries paying them regular tribute, 'the whole of 
Phoenicia, the lands of Tyre and of Sidon.' The fall of the 
Old Assyrian monarchy restored Phoenicia to independence. 
But the founder of the New Monarchy, Tiglath-pileser n, 
again exacted the tribute, and among the kings who sub- 
mitted to him, are mentioned those of Tyre and Gebal. 

Sargon's Siege of Tyre (b. c. 720-715). — A few years 
later, while Sargon was at war with Egypt and Ethiopia, the 
Phoenician states once more shook off the yoke of Assyria. 
But Sargon, after his decisive victory at Raphia, forced them 
again into submission. Insular Tyre alone defied him and 
stood the first of its three memorable sieges.f The Assyrian 
pressed into his service the fleets of his Phoenician vassals. 
The Syrians were attacked by sixty ships of their late con- 
federates, Sidon, Acco, and Old Tyre. Putting to sea with 
only twelve vessels, they gained a complete victory over the 
enemy. Sargon then left his generals to reduce Tyre by 
blockade. But the constancy of the besieged triumphed 
over all the efforts of the assailants. After five years the 
siege was abandoned (b. c. 715). 

Tyre the Vassal of Assyria and Egypt (b. c. 700- 
608).— Under Sennacherib however, Ethbaal, king of Tyre, 
yielded himself a vassal to the Assyrians ; and, excepting 

*From this circumstance she received the name of Dido, the 
Fugitive. 

tThe other two were those of Nabuchodonosor and Alexander 
the Great. 



SUPREMACY OF TYRE, 



79 



short intervals of successful rebellions, the tribute continued 
to be paid down to the fall of the Assyrian empire. The 
recovery of Egyptian supremacy in western Asia by Nechao 
(b. c. 608), confirmed the virtual independence of the 
Phoenician cities. They welcomed this vigorous Pharaoh as 
a deliverer from the Assyrian yoke ; and their fleet, placed 
as of old at the service of Egypt, was employed in the mari- 
time adventures which have been related in the reign of 
Nechao. 

Siege of Tyre by Nabuchodonosor (b. c. 598-585). 
— The period of peace and prosperity just referred to, was of 
short duration. 'Tyre, the crowning city/ the city 'of perfect 
beauty, whose merchants were princes, whose traffickers 
were the honorable of the earth ;' whose prince said in the 
pride of his uplifted heart, ' Behold I am God, I sit in the 
seat of God,' — Tyre, steeped in all the vices of a commer- 
cial people, was about to be punished for her unbounded 
indulgence in luxury and sensual pleasure. The instrument 
of the divine wrath upon the Syrians was Nabuchodonosor. 
How obstinate was the resistance which he experienced, may 
be inferred from the words of Ezechiel (xxix), " Nabucho- 
donosor, king of Babylon, hath made his army to undergo 
hard service against Tyre ; every head was made bald, and 
every shoulder was pealed. For the service that he hath done 
me against it, I have given him the land of Egypt, because he 
hath labored for me, saith the Lord God." Despite all his 
efforts, which were continued for thirteen years, it would 
seem that Nabuchodonosor failed to capture the island city, 
though he took and destroyed Old Tyre on the main -land. 
Insular Tyre was admitted to a capitulation on moderate 
terms. But her king, Ethbaal, with all the chief inhabitants, 
was led away captive ; and Baal, a creature of Nabuchodono- 
sor, installed in his place as vassal of Babylon. From this 
time it is Sidon, not Tyre, that is found at the head of 
Phoenicia. 

Present state of Tyre and Sidon. — The subsequent 
history of the Phoenician cities under their successive 
masters — the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Latin 
crusaders, and the Turks — will be related in connection with 
that of those nations. Of Tyre and Sidon it is enough to 
say here that they continued to flourish as seats of learning, 
as well as of commerce and manufacture, till their occupation 
by the Egyptians at the end of the crusades. Tyre was 



80 THE PHCENICIANS. 

still famous in the 12th century for its manufactures of glass. 
But on the day on which Ptolemai's was taken by the sultan 
of Egypt, a. D. 1291, its inhabitants, putting to sea, aban- 
doned their island city to be occupied freely by the inva- 
ders. The modern city hardly contains 4000 inhabitants. 
Most of the houses are mere hovels; the streets are narrow, 
crooked, and filthy. The ancient mistress of the sea, at the 
present day, possesses only a few crazy fishing-boats , and 
her whole trade consists in a few bales of cotton and to- 
bacco, with a few boat-loads of mill-stones and charcoal. 
Sidon {Say da) never sank so low. It is still a place of 
considerable traffic. In its neighborhood are tombs, with 
many sarcophagi, which are among the most interesting 
monuments of old Phoenicia. 



PART IV. 



THE HEBREWS, OR ISRAELITES. 



From the Call of Abraham, b. c. 2296, to the Fall 
of Jerusalem, b. c. 587. 



CHAPTER I. 

Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, and Joseph.* — b. c. 2296-2003. 

Call of Abram (b. c. 2296). — After the Flood, the 
world soon fell into profanity and idolatry. God, seeing 
himself generally forgotten, resolved to set apart a whole 
people among whom the true worship and doctrines of 
religion might be preserved, together with the promise and 
hope of the Redeemer. Abram, a descendant of Sem, was 
the father of this chosen people. At the call of God, he 
left the place of his nativity — Ur of the Chaldees ; and, cros- 
sing the 'great river/ the^Euphrates,f came into the land 

* Genesis, xi — l. — Nowhere is found so vivid a picture of the 
manners of remote antiquity as in Genesis. This circumstance, 
and the interest which naturally attaches to the history of the chosen 
people, account for the copiousness of details, which follows. 

fHence the Canaanites gave him the name of 'Hebrew' — the 
man who has crossed the river. His descendants were called He- 
brews after him, and Israelites after Jacob, whom the angel sur- 
named Israel. The word Jew did not come into use till after the 
separation of the Ten Tribes, and designated first a member of the 
kingdom of Judah ; but, after the return from captivity, it was 
applied to all the Israelites. 

81 



g 2 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. I. 

of Canaan, with his wife Sarai and his nephew Lot. At Ha- 
ran, in Mesopotamia, where Abram first sojourned after 
quitting Ur, God had promised him, "I will make of thee 
a great nation, and J will bless thee, and in thee shall all the 
families of the earth be blessed." At Sichem, his first halt- 
ing-place in the land of Canaan, God appeared to him again, 
and said, "To thy seed will I give this land." 

Abram in Egypt. — Some time after this, a famine which 
was felt in the land of Canaan, drove Abram into Egypt. 
Fearing that the Egyptians might kill him to obtain posses - 
sion of his wife, who was 'a fair woman to look upon,' he 
caused Sarai to pass for his sister.* Soon the king took her 
into his house; and for her sake bestowed extraordinary 
favors upon her supposed brother. Warned of his mistake 
by plagues sent upon him and his household, the king re- 
stored Sarai to Abram, and sent him out of Egypt. 

Abram's Separation from Lot. — Abram, 'who was 
now very rich in cattle, gold, and silver/ began to feel the 
evils of prosperity. The land could not support his own 
cattle and Lot's, and contentions arose between their herds- 
men. Abram, therefore, said to Lot: "Let there be no 
quarrel, I beseech thee, between me and thee and between 
my herdsmen and thy herdsmen ; for we are brethren. Be- 
hold the whole land is before thee. Depart from me, I pray 
thee ; if thou wilt go to the left hand,f I will take the right ; 
if thou choose the right hand, I will pass to the left." And 
Lot chose for himself the country about the Jordan, and 
dwelt in Sodom. After he had departed, the Lord said to 
Abram : "Lift up now thine eyes, and look from the place 
where thou now art northward, and southward, and east- 
ward, and westward. For all the land which thou seest, to 
thee will I give it, and to thy seed forever. And I will make 
thy seed as the dust of the earth." 

Abram's Rescue of Lot. — Abram now removed to the 
oaks of Mambre near Hebron, and there built an altar to the 
Lord. This became his usual abode. The plain of the 
Lower Jordan was then occupied by five cities — Sodom, 
Gomorra, Adama, Seboim, and Bala, which were tributary to 

*According to the Oriental form of speech, near female relations 
were so called : she was his niece. 

fThe Hebrews and Arabs named the cardinal points from the 
position of the body, when the face was turned to the east ; the left 
hand, therefore, means the north, and the right ha?id the south. 



B. C. 2296-219I. ABRAHAM. 3^> 

Chodorlahomor, king of Elam. In the 1 3th year of their sub- 
jection, they revolted against Chodorlahomor, who marched 
against them with three allied kings, and in the battle 
which ensued the rebels were defeated. The conquerors 
then proceeded to ravage the cities of the plain, and Lot and 
his family were among the captives. Vv hen the news was 
brought to Abram, he took 'of the servants born in his house 
318 well armed,' and, sallying forth from Mambre, pursued 
the victors to Dan.* Then, dividing his company, he rush- 
ed upon the Elamites by night, smote them, and rescued 
Lot and his family with all the spoil. 

Melchizedek. — On his return from the slaughter of 
Chodorlahomor, Abram was met by Melchizedek, king of 
Salem and priest of the Most High God, who, bringing 
forth bread and wine, blessed him, and said: "Blessed 
be Abram by the Most High God, who created heaven and 
earth !" And Abram gave him tithes of all the spoils ; but 
he kept no part of the booty to himself, lest any one might 
say : "I have enriched Abram." 

Birth of Ismael. — "After these things, the word of the 
Lord came to Abram in a vision, saying, Fear not, Abram ; 
I am.thy protector and thy reward exceedingly great. Look 
up to heaven, and number the stars, if thou canst : so shall 
thy seed be. Abram believed God, and it was accounted 
to him for justice. And God made a covenant with him, 
saying : To thy seed will I give this land, from the river of 
Egypt even to the great river Euphrates." Abram, how- 
ever, was still childless ; so Sarai', who thought herself bar- 
ren, persuaded him to take her handmaid, Agar, an Egyp- 
tian, as a secondary wife. "And Agar brought forth a son 
to Abram, who called his name Ismael." 

Covenant of Circumcision ; the Names of Abram 
and Sarai changed. — Thirteen years after the birth of 
Ismael, in Abram's 99th year, the Lord .appeared to him, 
and said : "I am the Almighty God ; walk before me, and 
be perfect. I will multiply thee exceedingly ; thou shalt be 
a father of many nations. Neither shall thy name be called 
any more Abram : but thou shalt be called Abraham, f be- 
cause a father of many nations have I made thee ; and kings 
shall come out of thee. And therefore thou shalt keep 

*5o leagues off'. 

1 \ Abraham means father of a multitude ; Abram, exalted father. 



84 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. I. 

my covenant, and thy seed after thee in their generations. 
This is my covenant which ye shall observe between me and 
you, and thy seed after thee : all the male -kind of you shall be 
circumcised/' God said also to Abraham : "Sarai* thy wife 
thou shalt not call Sarai', but Sarah* ; and I will bless her, 
and of her I will give thee a son, whom I will bless, and 
he shall become nations, and kings of peoples shall spring 
from him." — The selfsame day was Abraham circumcised, 
and Ismael his son, and all the men of his household — as 
well they who were born in his house as the bought servants 
and strangers. 

Destruction of Sodom and Gomorra. — The sins of 
Sodom and Gomorra became so multiplied, and were so 
grievous in the sight of the Lord, that he resolved to destroy 
them for their wickedness. But, for the sake of Abraham, 
he spared the patriarch's nephew, Lot. Two angels came to 
Sodom, who said to Lot: "Whatsoever thou hast in the 
city, bring them out of this place, because the Lord hath 
sent us to destroy it." Lot told his sons-in-law of the im- 
pending destruction, but they despised his warning. He 
himself, with his wife and two daughters, was reluctantly 
dragged from the doomed city. Then ' the Lord rainedupon 
Sodom and Gomorra brimstone and fire out of heaven; 
and he destroyed these cities and all the country about, with 
all the inhabitants and all things which spring from the earth.' 
The plain, which before was fruitful 'as the garden of Jeho- 
vah,' became henceforth a scene of perfect desolation. Lot's 
wife, for looking behind during her flight, was changed into 
a pillar of salt; his daughters gave birth to two sons, Moab 
and Ammon, who were the fathers of the Moabites and Am- 
monites. 

Birth of Isaac (b. c. 2266)— Agar and Ismael are 
cast forth. — "And the Lord visited Sarah, as he had 
promised, and she conceived and bare Abraham a son in her 
old age, when he himself was a hundred years old. The 
child was named Isaac" — laughter, from the joy which his 
birth caused his parents. 'Abraham circumcised him the 
eighth day, as God had commanded him ; and Sarah gave 
him suck. And the child grew and was weaned; and 
Abraham made a great feast on the day of his weaning. And, 
when Sarah had seen the son of Agar the Egyptian mocking 

*Sarai, my princess ; Sarah, princess. 



B.C. 2296-219I. ABRAHAM. 3^ 

her own son, she said to Abraham : Cast out this bond- 
woman and her son ; for the son of the bondwoman shall 
not be heir with my son Isaac.' Her request was very- 
grievous to the patriarch. But, comforted by God's re- 
newed promise, that of Ismael he would make a nation, he 
gave Agar some bread and a bottle of water, and sent her 
away with the child. In the desert, an angel of the Lord 
comforted her; and God "was with her child, and he grew, 
and dwelt in the wilderness, and became an archer. And 
his mother took a wife for him out of the land of Egypt." 
The Bedouin Arabs are descended from Ismael. In them is 
verified, as in him, the prophecy which foretold his charac- 
ter and destiny : " He will be a wild man; his hand will be 
against every man, and every man's hand against him." 

Offering of Isaac (b. c. 2241). — God had yet a 
crowning trial to make of Abraham's faith and obedience. 
" Take now thy son," he said to him, " thine only son, whom 
thou lovest, and go into the land of vision, and offer him there 
for a burnt-offering upon one of the mountains which I will 
show thee." So Abraham, rising up in the night, saddled 
his ass, and took with him two young men and Isaac his 
son, and, when he had cut wood for the burnt-offering, he 
went his way to the place which God had told him. And, 
on the third day, lifting up his eyes, he saw the place afar 
off. " Abide ye here with the ass," he said to his young 
men, " while I and the lad go yonder and worship." And 
he took the wood for the burnt-offering, and laid it upon 
Isaac his son ; and he himself carried in his hands fire and a 
knife. And as they two went on together, Isaac said ; " My 
father, behold fire and wood ; where is the victim for the 
holocaust ?" " God will provide himself a victim for a holo- 
caust, my son," said Abraham ; and when they had reached 
the appointed place, he built an altar, placed the wood upon 
it, then bound Isaac, and laid him on the altar upon the wood. 
And he put forth his hand, and took the knife to sacrifice 
his son. And behold an angel of the Lord from heaven 
called to him, saying: " Lay not thy hand upon the lad ; 
now I know that thou fearest God, and hast not spared thy 
only begotten son for my sake." Abraham, on lifting up 
his eyes, beheld a ram caught in a thicket by his horns, and 
he took the ram and offered him up for a burnt-offering in 
the place of his son. As a reward for his obedience, God 
once more renewed his promise of multiplying his seed as 



86 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. I. 



• 



the stars of heaven, and as the sand which is by the 
seashore. " And in thy seed," he added, " shall all the 
nations of the earth be blessed, because thou hast obeyed my 
voice." 

Death and Burial of Sarah. — After this, twelve 
years passed away, and Sarah died at Hebron ; 'and Abra- 
ham came to mourn and weep for her. And, after indulging 
his grief,' he bought for 400 shekels of silver, of Ephron,one 
of the sons of Heth, the Double-cave of Machpelah as a bury- 
ing place, with the field in which it stood. Here he buried 
Sarah ; here he himself was afterwards buried ; here too 
were buried Isaac and Rebecca, Jacob and Liah. The 
sepulchre still exists under the mosque of Hebron, and was 
first permitted to be seen by Europeans, since the crusades, 
when it was visited by the Prince of Wales, in 1862. 

Isaac Marries Rebecca (b, c. 2226). — Wishing to 
marry his son Isaac to a wife of his own kindred, Abraham 
sent his oldest servant to Haran in Mesopotamia, where his 
brother Nachor had settled. On reaching the place of his 
destination, the servant stopped without the town near a 
well, at the time of the evening when the women were wont 
to come out to draw water, and he prayed : " O Lord 
the God of my master Abraham, favor me to-day, and show 
kindness unto my master : and let the maid who will give 
me drink and to my camels also, be the one thou hast pro- 
vided for thy servant Isaac." He had not yet ended these 
words, and behold, Rebecca, the daughter of Bathuel, son 
of Nachor, Abraham's brother, appeared, having a pitchei 
on her shoulder, which she went down to fill at the spring. 
As she was coming back, Abraham's servant met her, and 
said : " Let me, I pray thee, drink a little water of thy 
pitcher." " Drink, my lord," she answered, and quickly she 
let down the pitcher upon her arm and gave him drink. "I 
will draw water for thy camels also," she then added ; and, 
pouring the pitcher into the troughs, she ran back to the 
well to draw water ; and having drawn, she gave to all the 
camels. Understanding thereby that his prayer was heard, 
the servant gave her two golden ear-rings and two bracelets 
of gold, and inquired whether there was any place in her 
father's home to lodge in. "Of both straw and hay," she 
said, " we have gqod store, and a large place to lodge in." 
Then she ran home, and told her brother Laban. He, going 
to the stranger, ' brought him into his lodging ; and he un- 



B. C. 2266-2086. ISAAC. 87 

harnessed the camels, and gave straw and hay, and water to 
wash his feet, and the feet of the men who had come with 
him. And bread was set before him.' But the servant 
would not eat, until he had obtained Rebecca's consent, and 
that of her relatives, that she should become Isaac's wife. 
A banquet was made^'and they ate and drank together;' 
and on the next morning, setting Rebecca and her 
maids upon camels, he with speed returned to his master. 
It was even-tide, when, at the end of their journey, they drew 
near to the tent of Isaac. Isaac had gone forth into the 
field to meditate. On lifting up his eyes, he saw the camels 
coming, and went at once to meet them. " And he brought 
Rebecca into the tent of Sarah, his mother, and took her to 
wife ; and he loved her so much, that it moderated the sor- 
row which was occasioned by his mother's death. - ' 

Death of Abraham (b. c. 2 191). — Besides Isaac and 
Ismael, Abraham had by a third wife, Ketura, six other 
sons. These he enriched with presents, and sent them 
away, like Ismael, to dwell eastward of Bersabee, and they 
became fathers of Arabian tribes. To Isaac he 'gave all his 
possessions ; and, decaying, he died in a good old age,' 
having lived 175 years. The name of Abraham, the 'Father 
of the believers', has ever been held in great veneration 
throughout a very large portion of Asia, and the title of l El- 
Khalily The Friend (of God), is that by which he is usually 
spoken of by the Arabs. 

Jacob and Esau. — For nearly twenty years Rebecca con- 
tinued barren. At length, through the prayers of Isaac, she 
became a mother, and brought forth twin sons, Esau (hairy) 
and Jacob (the supplanter). When the boys grew up, "Esau 
became a skillful hunter and a husbandman ; but Jacob, a plain 
man, dwelt in tents. Isaac loved Esau, because he ate of his 
venison ; and Rebecca loved Jacob." One day, Esau, return- 
ing from hunting in a famished state, found Jacob preparing 
red pottage of lentils, and quickly asked for some. Jacob 
seized the occasion to obtain Esau's birthright as the price of 
the meal. The latter consented, thus bartering away the 
privilege of being not only the head of his own family — its 
prophet, priest, and king, but also the father of the chosen race, 
the heir of the promise made to Abraham, that in his seed — the 
Christ to come — should all families of the earth be blessed. 

Isaac blesses Jacob (b. c. 2129). — When Isaac grew 
old, and his eyes, dim with age, warned him of the near 



88 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. L" 

approach of death, he was anxious to perform the solemn 
act by which he was to hand down the blessing of Abraham 
to another generation. Calling to him Esau, his eldest son, 
he said : "Take thy weapons, thy quiver and bow, and go 
out to the field, and take me some venison, and make me 
savory meat, and bring it that I may eat, and bless thee be- 
fore I die." Rebecca heard this ; anc£ when Esau was gone, 
she said to Jacob : ''Go now to the flock, and fetch me two 
of the best kids ; and I will make them savory meat for thy 
father, such as he loveth, and thou shalt bring it to him, 
that he may bless thee before his death." Then she put on 
him good garments of Esau, and covered his hands and 
neck with the skins of the kids, and made him carry to his 
father the savory meat, and the bread she had baked. De- 
ceived by this stratagem, Isaac blessed Jacob, instead of 
Esau, saying: "God give thee of the dew of heaven, and 
of the fatness of the earth, abundance of corn and wine. 
Aifd let peoples serve thee, and tribes worship thee : be thou 
lord of thy brethren, and let thy mother's children bow down 
before thee." Esau, on his return, learned from the lips of 
his father what had taken place ; end in his fury hardly re- 
frained from killing his brother. 

Jacob's Vision. — Fearing for the life of her beloved son, 
Rebecca resolved to send him away to her brother Laban, 
in Haran. Concealing her chief reason for so doing, she said 
to Isaac that it would be a trouble to her, if Jacob were to 
marry one of the daughters of Heth as Esau had done. 
Isaac then called Jacob, and said unto him : "Go to the house 
of Bathuel, thy mother's father, and take thee a wife thence 
of the daughters of Laban thy uncle ; and God Almighty 
bless thee, that thou mayst possess the land of thy sojourn- 
ment, which he promised to Abraham." On his way to 
Haran, Jacob coming to a certain place where he wished to 
rest after sunset, took a stone of which he made his pillow, 
and then lay down to sleep. "And he saw in his sleep a 
ladder standing upon the earth, and the top of it touching 
heaven: the angels also of God ascending and descending 
by it. And the Lord, leaning upon the ladder, said to him : 
I am the God of Abraham thy father, and the God of Isaac : 
the land in which thou sleepest, I will give to thee and to thy 
seed, and in thee and thy seed all the tribes of the earth 
shall be blessed." When Jacob awoke out of his sleep, he 
exclaimed, "How terrible is this place ! this is no other but 



fc. C. 2265-2059. JACO& 89 

the house" 4 of God and the gate of heaven. He then took 
the stone which he had laid under his head, and set it up 
for a pillar, pouring oil upon the top of it. And he called 
the name of the place Bethel (the house of God) ; and he 
made a vow, saying : Of all things which thou, O Lord, 
shalt give to me, I will offer tithes to Thee." 

Jacob's Stay with Laean; his Wives and Child- 
ren. — After this vision, Jacob proceeded on his journey, 
and at length came to the neighborhood of Haran. Here, 
near the well, where 100 years before, Abraham's servant first 
saw Rebecca, he was met by Rachel, Laban's younger daugh- 
ter, who was coming to water her father's flock. Jacob 
made himself known to her, and she ran home and told her 
father. Laban, 'on hearing that his sister's son was come, 
ran forth to meet him ; and, embracing him and kissing him, 
brought him into his house.' They then agreed that Jacob 
should serve his uncle seven years in tending his flocks, and 
then as his recompense should have Rachel for wife. At 
the end of that time, however, he received only Liah, La- 
ban's elder daughter, and was made to serve seven years 
more before he could obtain Rachel. Liah bore him six 
sons — Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Judah, Issachar, and Zabu- 
lon ; Rachel, two — Joseph and Benjamin. By the two hand- 
maids, Bela and Zelpha, whom Rachel and Liah gave to 
Jacob as secondary wives, he had four other sons — Dan and 
Nephtali, Gad and Aser. These are the twelve Patriarchs. 

Jacob returns to Canaan. Death of Isaac. — After 
20 years spent in Laban's service, during which time he 
grew rich in flocks and cattle, Jacob set out to return into 
the land of his father and kindred. And one night, during 
the journey, as he was alone in the rear of the caravan, an 
angel, under the appearance of a man, wrestled with him 
till morning, without being able to overcome him, but made 
him lame by touching the sinew of his thigh, which forth- 
with shrank. Knowing by this that he was struggling with 
an angel, Jacob requested his blessing. "Thy name," said 
the angel, "shall no more be called Jacob, but Israel (a prince 
of God) as a sign that thou hast power with God and with 
men ;" and he blessed him. — During this same journey, 
Jacob was also met by his brother Esau, with whom he had a 
pleasant interview, and upon whom he forced a large pre- 
sent of 200 she-goats and 20 he-goats, 200 ewes and 20 
rams, 30 milch camels with their colts, 40 kine and 20 bulls, 



96 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. f. 

20 she-asses and 10 of their foals. — At Sichem, he bought 
for 100 lambs, of the children of Hemor, the field where he 
had pitched his tents; 'and, raising an altar there, he in- 
voked upon it the Most Mighty God of Israel.' Seven years 
did Jacob live at Sichem ; thence he removed to Bethel, 
where Rachel died in giving birth to Benjamin, and finally 
to Hebron, where he spent several years with his father, un- 
til the latter 'spent with age, died, and was gathered to his 
people, being old and full of days : and his sons Esau and 
Jacob buried him.' 

Joseph is sold by his Brethren (b. c. 2096). — As the 
first-born of his beloved Rachel and the son of his old age, 
'Israel loved Joseph above all his children ; and he made 
him a coat of divers colors.' But this partiality awoke the 
jealousy of his other sons, who 'hated Joseph, and could 
not speak peaceably to him.' Their hatred was increased by 
the recital of two dreams, foretelling his greatness, which he 
with childlike simplicity related in presence of his father 
and brothers. So, one day, when Jacob sent him to inquire 
after his brethren, they, seeing him approach, said to one 
another : " Behold, the dreamer cometh ! Let us kill him, and 
we will say : Some evil beast hath devoured him." Ruben, 
however, persuaded them to cast him into an empty pit, 
whence he intended to take him and restore him to his father. 
But, in Ruben's absence, Midianite merchants happened to 
pass by, who were carrying to Egypt, on their camels, the 
spices and balm and myrrh of the Syrian deserts. To these 
men Joseph's brethren sold him for 20 shekels of silver — a 
type of Him 'whom the children of Israel did price.' 

Joseph is made Ruler of Egypt. — "And Joseph was 
brought into Egypt, and Putiphar, an officer of Pharaoh, 
chief captain of the army, bought him ; and the Lord was 
with Joseph, and he founpl favor in the sight of his master, 
who made him steward over his household ; and the Lord 
blessed the house of the Egyptian for Joseph's sake." The 
beauty of the youthful slave exposed him to a great temp- 
tation from his master's wife, which, however, he was vir- 
tuous enough to withstand. In revenge for this slight, she 
stirred up the wrath of her husband, and Joseph was cast 
into the state prison. There he remained for several years, 
enduring at first very severe treatment. But the same bless- 
ing that had raised him in the house of Putiphar, followed 
him in the prison, the keeper of which gave him the entire 



S. C. 2 1 I3-2O0J. JOSEPH. gf 

charge of the other prisoners, 'because the Lord was with 
him, and made all that he did prosper.' — Two dreams which 
Joseph interpreted for two high officers of the court, caused 
him to be sent for by the king himself. Pharaoh had seen 
in a dream seven fat and beautiful heifers devoured by other 
seven, very lean and ill-looking ; and, in a second dream, 
seven full ears of corn devoured by seven that were thin and 
blasted. Brought into the presence of Pharaoh to explain 
his dreams, Joseph told him that the seven fat heifers and 
the seven full ears marked seven years of great abundance, 
which should be followed by seven years of famine, denoted 
by the lean kine and the blasted ears of corn. He then ad- 
vised Pharaoh to appoint a wise minister, who should store 
up a fifth part of all the corn of the seven years of plenty, 
against the seven years of famine. The Pharaoh full of ac^ 
miration for the wisdom of the Hebrew youth, appointed 
him forthwith ' ruler over all the land of Eygpt.' He then 
took off his own signet-ring, and gave it to Joseph. Then 
clothing him with fine linen robes, and putting a collar of 
gold around his neck, he seated him in the second royal 
chariot, before which the people were bidden to fall prostrate. 
He next changed his name to Zaphnath-Pannea, which, 
according to some, signifies savior of the world; and he 
gave him for wife Aseneth, the daughter of a distinguished 
Egyptian. She bare Joseph two sons, Manasses and Ephraim. 
Journey of the Sons of Jacob into Egypt.— The 
famine which Joseph had predicted being felt in the land of 
Canaan, Jacob sent down his sons into Egypt to buy corn 
there, but kept with him Benjamin, ' lest he suffered harm on 
the journey/ When Joseph saw his brethren, 'he knew 
them, but he was not known by them.' He spoke roughly to 
them ; and, after keeping them three days in prison, he sent 
them away with corn, but detained Simeon as a hostage until 
they would bring to him their youngest brother Benjamin. 
Thereupon his brethren began to say to one another : " Be- 
cause we sinned against Joseph, therefore is this affliction 
come upon us." On their return home, they told their father 
all that had befallen them, and asked him to entrust Benja- 
min to their care. " Me have ye bereaved of my children," 
he answered; "Joseph is not, Simeon is kept in bonds, and 
Benjamin ye will take away ! No ; my son shall not go 
down with you. If mischief befall him in the land to which 
ye go, then shall ye bring down my gray hairs with sorrow 



§2 



tthe Israelites. Chapt. i. 



to the grave." At length, however, the soreness of the 
famine forced Jacob to send his sons again into Egypt, 
and Benjamin with them. When they were introduced into 
Joseph's presence, his first inquiry was, " Is your father well? 
is he yet alive ?" Then, seeing his brother Benjamin, his 
mother's son, " Is this,'' he said, " your younger brother? 
God be gracious to thee my son;" and he made haste to 
withdraw, because his heart was moved upon his brother, 
and tears burst forth. But the better to ascertain the senti- 
ments of his brethren toward Benjamin, he put them to one 
more trial. Their sacks being filled with corn, they were 
sent away, but not till his silver cup had been put in the 
sack of the youngest. Then Joseph dispatched his steward 
after them, who charged them with having stolen the cup. 
# " God forbid," they replied, " that thy servants should do 
this thing ! With whomsoever shall be found what thou 
seekest, let him die, and we also will become thy lord's 
bondmen." The cup was found in Benjamin's sack. There- 
upon they rent their clothes, and, returning to the city, cast 
themselves at the feet of Joseph : u Behold," said Judah, 
" we are all bondmen to my lord, both we and he with whom 
the cup was found. Joseph answered : God forbid that I 
should do so, he who stole the cup shall be my bondman. 
Go ye away free to your father." Then Judah, coming 
nearer, explained in the most touching terms how reluctant 
their father had been to allow his favorite child to go with 
them. '; If he does not see him come back with us," he 
added, " he will die. I took the lad in charge, and answered 
for his safety to our father. Therefore 1 thy servant will 
stay, instead of the boy, in the service of my lord ; and let 
the boy go up with his brethren. For I cannot return to my 
father without the boy, lest I be a witness to the calamity 
which will oppress my father." Joseph was unable to resist 
this touching appeal. "I am Joseph," he said, weeping; 
" is my father yet living?" And, as they could not answer 
for fear and surprise, " Be not afraid," he continued, " nor 
grieved that you sold me hither. Not ye sent me hither, 
but God. Hasten back to my father, and say to him : Thus 
saith thy son Joseph : God hath made me lord of the whole 
land of Egypt ; come down to me, tarry not." 

Jacob in Egypt (b. c. 2076-2059). — On receiving this 
message, Jacob's heart fainted, and he believed them not, 
until he had seen the wagons sent for him ; and then his 



B. C. 21 13-2003. JOSEPH. q-2 

spirit revived, and he said, " It is enough for me, if my son 
Joseph be yet living : I will go and see him before I die." 
Accordingly he started at once with all that he had. Joseph 
came to meet him in Gessen, ' and seeing him fell on his 
neck, and wept on his neck a good while.' " Now," said 
Israel, "shall I die with joy, because I have seen thy face, 
and leave thee alive." Joseph obtained from the king for 
his father and brethren the land of Gessen, which was the 
best pasture-ground in all Egypt. Here Israel lived for 17 
years, in comfort and prosperity. Before dying, he made 
Joseph swear that he would not bury him in Egypt, but 
would take him to the burying-place of his fathers, in the 
Promised Land. With his last breath, he predicted to each 
one of his sons what would befall their posterity, and desig- 
nated Judah as their future ruler, and as the ancestor of the 
Messiah. Then, renewing his injunction that he should be 
buried in the Double-cave over against Mambre, he yielded 
up his spirit at the age of 147. After a burst of natural 
grief, Joseph gave orders for his embalming, and kept a 
mourning of 40 days, according to the Egyptian custom. 
He then went with all his brethren, and the elders both of 
Israel and Egypt, and a great military retinue, to bury him 
at Hebron. Joseph survived his father for 56 years. Having 
bound his brothers by an oath to carry his remains with 
them, when they returned to Canaan, he died at the age of 
no (b. c. 2003). He was embalmed, and placed in a sar- 
cophagus, but not buried. 



CHAPTER II. 

Moses and Josue — b. c. 1725-1580. 



Increase and Oppression of the Israelites in 
Egypt. — After the death of Joseph, "the children of Israel 
increased, and sprung up into multitudes ; and, growing ex- 
ceedingly strong, they filled the land. In the meantime, 
there arose a new kingj- over Egypt, who knew not Joseph, 
and who feared that, in the event of a war, they might go 



94 'THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. II. 

over to the enemy and so escape out of the land." He re- 
solved, therefore, to weaken them by degrees, by forcing 
them to hard labor and reducing them to slavery. The ser- 
vice which he compelled them to perform, consisted in field- 
work, and especially in making bricks and building the 
treasure -cities, Pithom and Ramesses. Although the lives 
of the Israelites were bitter with hard bondage and oppres- 
sion, still they multiplied and grew. Pharaoh then com- 
manded the midwives of the Hebrews to kill the male 
children at their birth ; and, this order being disregarded, 
he ' charged his people to cast all the new-born sons of the 
Israelites into the Nile, but to save the daughters/ 

Bjrth of Moses (c. b. 1725). — During this persecution, 
a woman of the house of Levi " conceived and bore a son ; 
and, seeing that he was a goodly child, she hid him three 
months. When she could no longer conceal him, she took 
a basket made of bulrushes, and daubed it with slime and 
pitch, and put the babe in it, and laid him in the sedges by 
the river's brink. And her sister stood afar off, to notice 
what would be done. And, behold, the daughter of Pharaoh 
came down to wash in the river ; and, seeing the basket, she 
sent one of her maids for it ; and, when she opened it, behold 
the babe wept. Touched with pity, she said : This is one 
of the babes of the Hebrews. And the child's sister said to 
her : shall I go, and call to thee a Hebrew woman to nurse 
the babe ? She answered : Go. The maid went, and called 
her mother. The woman took and nursed the child ; and, 
when he was grown up, she delivered him to Pharaoh's 
daughter. And she adopted him as her son, and called him 
Moses {drawn out), because, she said, I drew him out of the 
water." 

Moses is Commanded to Deliver Israel. — Moses 
was brought up as an Egyptian prince, and was instructed 
in ' all the wisdom of the Egyptians.' When he was forty 
years old, he went forth to make himself acquainted with 
the state of his brethren. The first sight he saw, was an 
Egyptian overseer beating one of the Hebrews who worked 
under him. Stung with indignation, ' he slew the Egyptian 
and hid him in the sand.' When he went out the next day, 
he saw two Hebrews quarrelling ; and his interference was 
scornfully rejected by the wrong-doer, who asked him, 
" Who made thee a prince and judge over us? Intendest 
thou to kill me as thou killedst the Egyptian ?" The story 



B. C. 1725-15S0. MOSES AND JOSUE. 95 

reached the ears of Pharaoh, and he ordered Moses to be 
put to death. He fled, however, and reached the land of 
Midian. Here he was welcomed by Jethro the priest of 
Midian, took Sephora his daughter to wife, and for forty years 
fed the sheep of his father-in-law. One day, as Moses came 
with his flock " to the mountain of God, to Horeb, the Lord 
appeared to him in a flame of fire, out of the midst of a bush 
which burnt with fire, and was not consumed, and he said : 
I am the God of thy father, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob. I have seen the affliction of my people in Egypt, 
and I have come down to deliver them out of the hands of 
the Egyptians, and to bring them into a land flowing with 
milk and honey. And I will send thee to Pharaoh, that 
thou mayst bring forth my people, the children of Israel, out 
of Egypt." 

Agreeably to the divine command, Moses sought the pre- 
sence of Pharaoh, and said to him : " Thus saith the Lord 
God of Israel : Let my people go, that they may sacrifice to 
me in the desert" Instead of complying with the request, 
the monarch increased the burdens of the Israelites. Then 
began that memorable contest between the king of Egypt 
and the King of kings, during which Moses and his brother 
Aaron performed the series of prodigies which are known 
as the Ten Plagues of Egypt. 

The Ten Plagues of Egypt. — The first was the turn- 
ing of the waters of Egypt into blood ; the second was a 
plague of frogs, which swarmed in countless numbers 
throughout the land ; the third, a plague of gnats, which 
were as well on men as on beasts ; the fourth, a plague of 
flies ; the fifth, a grievous murrain upon horses, and asses, 
and camels, and oxen, and sheep ; the sixth, a plague of 
biles and swelling blains, both in men and beasts ; the 
seventh, a terrific storm of hail and lightnings, such as had 
never been seen in Egpyt ; the eighth consisted of myriads 
of locusts, which ate up every blade of grass and everything 
green that the hail had left ; the ninth was a three days' 
darkness, ' even darkness which might be felt/ toward the 
end of which Pharaoh was warned that, if he did not let the 
people go, * all the first-born in the land of Egypt would 
die.' The king, upon the inflicting of each of the above 
judgments, to attain its cessation, would promise to let the 
people go ; but with the removal of the plague ' his heart 
was hardened,' and, in the end, with threats he forbade 



9 6 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. II. 

Moses to come again into his presence. " In whatever day 
thou shalt come into my sight, thou shalt die." This threat 
was uttered on the 13th day of the Jewish month JVisan, on 
the eve of the Passover. 

Institution of the Passover. — None of the plagues 
which afflicted Egypt, was felt by Israel. During their con- 
tinuance, Moses thus spoke to his assembled brethren : " On 
the 10th day of this month, let each household choose a year- 
ling lamb without blemish. This ye shall keep until the 
14th, when ye shall sacrifice it, about sunset ; and ye shall 
sprinkle some of its blood on the lintels and door-posts of 
the houses wherein ye are to eat it. And thus ye shall eat 
it : ye shall gird your reins, and ye shall have shoes on your 
feet, holding staves in your hands ; and ye shall eat in haste ; 
for it is the Passover of the Lord. And I will pass through 
the land of Egypt that night, and I will smite every first- 
born of man and beast ; but, seeing the token of the blood 
on your doors, I will pass over you. And the children of 
Israel did as the Lord had commanded. And it came to pass 
at midnight, the Lord slew every first-bcrn in the land of 
Egypt, from the first-born of Pharaoh that sat on his throne, 
unto the first-born of the captive in the dungeon, and all the 
firstlings of cattle. And Pharaoh rose up in the night, and 
all his servants and all Egypt ; and a great cry arose in 
Egypt, for there was not a house in which lay not one dead." 

Departure of the Israelites (b. c. 1645), — "And 
Pharaoh, calling Moses and Aaron, in the night, said : Go, 
sacrifice to the Lord, as ye say. Your sheep and herds take 
along with you ; and, departing, bless me. And the child- 
ren of Israel set forward from Ramesses and Socoth, being 
about 600,000 men on foot, besides children." As an in- 
demnification for the hardships they had endured in Egypt, 
the Lord ordered them' to carry away 'vessels of silver and 
gold, and very much raiment,' which the Hebrew women 
had borrowed from the Egyptians. Their march was con- 
ducted with order and discipline, and was guided by Jehovah 
himself, 'who went before them to show the way, by day in 
a pillar of a cloud, and by night in a pillar of fire.' 

Passage of the red sea. — When Pharaoh heard that 
the Israelites had fled, he regretted that he had let them go. 
So, hastily collecting his army, he set out in pursuit, and 
found them encamped near the Red Sea. The sight of their 
oppressors struck the Israelites with dismay. "Hast thou 



B. C. 1725-1580. MOSES AND JOSUE. gj 

taken us away to die in the wilderness," they cried to Moses, 
"because there were no graves in Egypt?" "Fear not," he 
replied ; "stand still, and see the salvation of the Lord : he 
will fight for you. " The Lord then said to Moses : Lift thou 
up thy rod, and stretch forth thy hand over the sea, and 
divide it, that the children of Israel may go through the 
midst of the sea on dry ground." Moses did as he was 
directed, aud the water was divided, and the children of 
Israel went in through, the midst of the sea dried up ; for 
the water was as a wall on their right hand and on their left. 
And the Egyptians, pursuing, followed after them. And 
now the morning watch came ; and the Lord said to Moses : 
Stretch forth thy hand over the sea, that the waters may 
come again upon the Egyptians, upon their chariots and 
horsemen. And when Moses had stretched forth his hand 
towards the sea, it returned to the former place ; and the 
waters covered the chariots and the horsemen of all the army 
of Pharaoh, who had come into the sea after them, and not 
one of them was left alive." 

The Israelites in the Desert. — The Israelites, after 
crossing the Red Sea, found themselves in a wilderness. 
Here their provisions were soon exhausted, and they began 
to murmur, "Would to God, that we had died in Egypt, 
where we sat by the flesh-pots and did eat bread to the full, 
instead of being led out to perish in this desert !" God, how- 
ever, provided for their wants, by sending them in the even- 
ing a flight of quails, which filled the camp ; and, the next 
morning, they saw the face of the earth covered with small 
particles resembling hoar frost "What is this ?" they ex- 
claimed, on perceiving it. "This is the bread," Moses 
answered, "which the Lord hath given you to eat." This 
miraculous substance was henceforth their chief food during 
the forty years they lived in the desert. Every morning they 
gathered a certain quantity for use during the day ; and on 
the eve of the Sabbath they put in a double supply, because 
none fell on the day of rest. "And the house of Israel called 
the name of it manna ; and it was like coriander seed white, 
and its taste like flour with honey." 

Giving of the Law at Sinai. — On the first day of the 
third month after leaving Egypt, the Israelites came to the 
wilderness of Sinai. Here they encamped before the mount, 
but were ordered to remain at some distance and to purify 
themselves. "And on the third day, behold, thunders were 



9 8 



THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. II. 



heard, and lightnings flashed, and a very thick cloud covered 
the mount, and the noise of the trumpet sounded exceedingly 
loud. And all Mount Sinai was in a smoke, because the 
Lord was come upon it in fire ; and all the mount quaked 
greatly ; and the sound of the trumpet grew . by degrees 
louder and louder, and was drawn out to a greater length." 
At last, amidst this scene of terror, the voice of God himself 
was heard giving forth Ten Commandments, by which his 
people were to live. 

The Golden Galf. — As soon as God had done speak- 
ing, the people, overcome with terror, prayed Moses that 
he would speak to them in the place of God, lest they should 
die. They then removed afar off, while Moses drew near to 
the thick darkness where God was. In the course of the six 
following days, he received a series of precepts which form a 
practical interpretation of the Ten Commandments. After 
he had written these words of God in the Book of the Cov- 
enant, and read them to the people, he was called again 
into the cloud, and there abode without food forty days and 
forty nights. During this period, he received instructions 
from God as to the pattern of the Tabernacle, the form of 
the Ark, the various kinds of sacrifices, and other ordinances 
of divine worship ; and, on the fortieth day, the Lord gave 
him 'two stone tables of testimony, written with the finger 
of God.' 

But, during his prolonged absence, the people had grown 
weary with waiting. Thinking him dead, they said to Aaron : 
"Arise, make us gods that may go before us." Aaron weak- 
ly yielded to their demand, and asked the people for their 
golden ear-rings, from which he made a molten calf, the 
symbol of the Egyptian deity Apis. This the Israelites were 
worshipping with sacrifices, songs, and dances, as Moses 
came down from the mount ; and, when he saw it, being 
very angry, he cast the tables out of his hands, and broke 
them ; and, laying hold of the calf, he burned it, and beat 
it to powder, and strewed its dust into the water which the 
people drank. Then, standing in the gate of the camp, he 
cried : "Whoever is on the Lord's side come to me ;" and 
all his brethren of the tribe of Levi rallied round him. 
He commanded them to go, sword in hand, throughout the 
camp, and to kill all whom they still found at the idolatrous 
feast, and there were slain that day about 23,000 men. This 
terrible execution over, Moses went up again into Mount 



B. C. 1725-I580. MOSES AND JOSUE. go 

Sinai, carrying two tables of stone like those which he had 
broken. This time also he remained in the mount alone with 
the Lord, forty days and forty nights, fasting. On coming 
down, he brought with him the two tables with the Ten 
Commandments written thereupon by God himself. 

The Tabernacle set up.— Moses now gathered all the 
multitude of the children of Israel, and asked their free gifts 
for the tabernacle and its furniture. "Let every one of a 
willing heart offer to the Lord jewels, gold and silver and 
brass, skins and woven fabrics and fine linens — blue and 
purple, spices, oils, and incense ; and whichever of you is 
wise, let him come, and make that which the Lord hath 
commanded." With a most ready and devout mind, both 
men and women offered gifts. 'Beseleel, therefore, and 
Ooliab, and every wise man to whom the Lord gave wisdom 
and understanding to know how to work artificially,' made 
the tabernacle, with its furniture and vessels, the cloths of 
service, and the garments of the priests, after the pattern 
shown to Moses in the mount. All things being ready, on 
the first day of the second year the tabernacle was set up, 
and therein was placed the ark, which contained the tables 
of the law and some manna. 

The Wandering in the Wilderness. — A month after 
the setting up of the tabernacle, the cloud of Jehovah's 
presence, which had been resting over it, was lifted up as a 
sign of departure, and the Israelites set forward on their 
journey to the Promised Land. Soon, however, the people, 
growing tired of the manna, recommenced their murmur- 
ings ; and God, after inflicting sundry chastisements, ordered 
them to turn back, condemning them to wander 40 years, 
till all the men of twenty years and upwards had perished in 
the wilderness. 

Death of Aaron. — Up to the giving of the Law at Sinai, 
the priesthood had been the privilege of the eldest born in 
each family. God, in establishing his Covenant, took the 
tribe of Levi to his special service ; and by his order Aaron 
and his sons were annointed to the priesthood. More than 
once Aaron's privilege was disputed ; but each time it was 
confirmed by the miraculous punishment of the rebels. 
Aaron, therefore, ministered as high-priest before the Lord. 
But for a slight sin of hesitancy of which he and Moses were 
guilty, neither was allowed to bring the Israelites into the 
Promised Land, and Aaron was the first to be gathered to 



IOO THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. II. 

his people. "Take Aaron and Eleazar his son," the Lord. 
said to Moses, "and bring them up unto Mount Hor. And 
strip Aaron of his garments, and put them upon Eleazar his 
son. And Aaron shall die there." Moses obeyed; and 
Aaron died, and the people mourned for him. 30 days. 

Death of Moses (b. c 1605). — Moses survived Aaron 
but a short time. Having slaughtered the Midianites, and 
broken the power of the Moabites, he settled the tribes of 
Ruben and Gad with half the tribe of Manasses, in the land 
conquered on the east of the Jordan. Then, as the old gen- 
eration had all passed away except Josue and Caleb, and a 
new had sprung up that had not beheld the wonders of Sinai, 
Moses rehearsed the dealings of Jehovah since the departure 
of Israel from Egypt, repeating the law, and enforcing it with 
solemn exhortations and warnings for the future. "And the 
Lord said to Moses : Behold, thy days approach that thou 
must die: call Josue, and stand ye at the tabernacle of the 
testimony, that I may give him a charge. And, as they stood 
there, the Lord appeared in a pillar of cloud, which stood 
in the entry of the tabernacle. And the Lord commanded 
Josue, the son of Nun, and said : Take courage^ and be 
valiant ; for thou shalt bring the children of Israel into the 
land which I have promised, and I will be with thee. Then 
Moses went up from the plains of Moab upon Mount Nebo, 
to the top of Phasga, over against Jericho : and the Lord, 
showing him all the country northward and westward and 
southward, said to him : This is the land which I swore to 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, saying, I will give it to thy 
seed. Thou hast seen it with thy eyes, and shalt not pass 
over to it. And Moses, the servant of the Lord, died there, 
and He buried him in the valley over against Phogor, and 
no man knoweth of his sepulchre. And the children of Is- 
rael mourned for him 30 days, and they rendered obedience 
to Josue, the son of Nun, on whom Moses had laid his hands, 
and who was filled with the spirit of wisdom. But there arose 
no more prophet in Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord 
knew face to face." 

Character of Moses. — As a leader, as a prophet, and 
especially as a lawgiver, Moses stands alone in supreme, 
unapproachable grandeur. His legislation sufficed for the 
wants of his people till the coming of Christ ; and as it need- 
ed no change, it underwent no alteration. The sole business 
of each successive ruler was to enforce its observance. As 



5. C. 1725-1560. Moses And josue. 101 

an author, his writings exhibit characteristics of originality 
not to be found elsewhere. In simplicity and sublime 
majesty, they are unequalled ; and, when reading him, one 
seems to hear the* voice, not merely of an inspired writer, 
but of God himself. 

Josue. — Moses, the lawgiver, was succeeded by Josue, 
the military chief, who was to lead the people into their in- 
heritance, and to give them rest. He belonged to the tribe 
of Ephraim, and was at this time about 80 years old. He 
had grown up to mature age in the state of Egpytian bon- 
dage ; had shared the experience and the trials of the wil- 
derness, as the chosen servant of Moses ; and had proved 
his military capacity in the conquest of the land east of Jor- 
dan. A devout warrior, blameless and fearless, who com- 
bined strength with gentleness, ever looking up for and obey- 
ing the divine impulse with the simplicity of a child, he is 
one of the few Old-Testament characters on whom is no stain. 

Passage of the Jordan. — So soon as the mourning of 
the Israelites for their great prophet was over, Josue ad- 
vanced to the very edge of the Jordan. The river was then 
swollen and overflowed its banks, in consequence of the 
melting of the snow. But, relying on the protection of the 
Lord, Josue ordered the priests who carried the ark, to enter 
the bed of the river ; and, as soon as they came into the 
Jordan, the waters above them stood still, being heaped up 
like a mountain, and those beneath them flowed down to- 
wards the Dead Sea, leaving the channel bare. The priests 
advanced into the midst of the river with the ark, and there 
stood girded, till all the people had passed over, when they 
proceeded to the western bank, and the waters resumed 
their natural course. This miraculous passage of the Jor- 
dan was effected on the tenth of April, the day appointed 
for the selection of the Pascal Lamb ; and, on the evening of 
the 14th, the people kept the Passover for the first time on 
the soil of their inheritance, exactly 40 years after their 
fathers had first kept it when they were leaving Egypt. On 
the morrow after the Passover, the new generation tasted 
bread for the first time ; the manna ceased, and henceforth 
they began to eat the fruits of the year. 

Capture of Jericho. — The great city of Jericho stood 
but a short distance from the camp of the Israelites. As 
Josue was meditating how to attack it, the Lord said to him : 
" Behold, I have given into thy hand Jericho and its king and 



102 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. II. 

all its valiant men. Go round about the city, all ye fighting 
men, once a day for six days ; and, on the seventh day, the 
priests shall take the seven trumpets, which are used in the 
jubilee, and shall go before the ark of the covenant : and ye 
shall go about the city seven times, and the priests shall 
sound the trumpets. And when the voice of the trumpet 
shall give a longer and broken blast, and shall sound in your 
ears, all the people shall shout together with a very great 
shout, and the walls of the city shall fall to the ground, and 
they shall enter in, every one straight before him." So they 
did, " and they took the city, and killed all who were in it, 
men and women, young and old. The oxen also and the 
sheep and the asses they slew with the edge of the sword. 
Rahab alone with her kindred and goods was spared. The 
city was burned and all things that were therein, except the 
gold and silver and vessels of brass and iron, which were 
placed in the sacred treasury." 

The Sun Stands Still. — Of all the peoples of Canaan, 
they who dwelt in Gabaon alone sought the alliance of the 
Israelites, which they obtained by a curious artifice. But, 
when Josue became aware of their deceit, he put them under 
a curse, and made them bondmen. The Canaanites, on the 
other hand, formed themselves into a great league to punish 
the Gabaonites for their defection. The inhabitants of Ga- 
baon then sent for help to Josue. He, marching all night 
from his camp, surprised the confederates, and ' slew them 
with great slaughter under the walls of Gabaon, and pursued 
them up the ascent to Beth-oron, and cut them off all the 
way to Azeca and Maceda,' while the Lord cast down upon 
them great hail-stones from heaven, which slew many more 
than had perished by the sword. It was during this memo- 
rable engagement, that " Josue spake to the Lord in the 
sight of the children of Israel, and said before them : Move 
not, O sun, toward Gabaon, nor thou, O moon, toward the 
valley of Ajalon ! And the sun stood still * and the moon 
stayed until the people had avenged themselves of their en- 
emies. There was not before nor after so long a day, the 
Lord obeying the voice of a man, and fighting for Israel." 

Conquest of the Promised Land.— The great battle 
of Beth-oron was followed by the conquest of the south- 

* Let us here repeat that the language of Scripture is popular 
not scientific, the purpose of Scripture being for ' our instruction,' 
not our progress in science. 



B. C. 1554-I05O. THE JUDGES. I03 

ern half of Palestine. A powerful league was now formed 
against the Hebrews by the people of the North. But the 
Lord delivered them into the hands of Josue, ' who smote 
them until none remained/ Many of the old inhabitants, 
however, in different parts, held out for quite a while. Nay, 
whole tracts, lying within the limits which God had originally 
named, remained unsubdued. These were, speaking gen- 
erally, the lowlands along the Mediterranean, the coasts of 
Phoenicia, and the ranges of Lebanon. Though these con- 
quests were not reserved for Josue, he was commanded to 
include them in the division of the land. 

Death of Josue (b. c. 1580). — Josue governed Israel 
for five-and-twenty years. When he felt himself ' going the 
way of all the earth,' he summoned the heads of the tribes, 
the judges, and the officers, and said to them : "Be careful 
to observe all things which are written in the book of the law 
of Moses. Cleave unto the Lord your God, as ye have done 
until this day; and then the Lord will take away before your 
eyes nations that are strong and very great. But, if you will 
embrace the errors of those nations that dwell among you, 
know for a certainty that the Lord will not destroy them 
before your face ; but they shall be a pit and a snare in your 
way, till he take you away and destroy you from off this 
excellent land which he hath given you." This exhortation 
and warning Josue repeated to the whole people assembled 
at Sichem, concluding with these words : " If it seem evil to 
you to serve the Lord, ye have your choice : as for me and 
my house, we will serve the Lord." The people answered : 
" We will serve the Lord our God, and be obedient to his 
commandments." Thereupon he sent them away, and died, 
being no years old. 



CHAPTER III. 
The Judges.—b. c. 1554-1050. 



Government of the Elders and Judges. — After the 
death of Josue, God uttered his commands through the 
high-priest ; and the elders of each tribe governed the peor 



164 



THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. III. 



pie. In the efforts made by the several tribes to drive out 
the heathen nations, Judah took the lead. So long as they 
lived, who had known the works of the Lord which he had 
done in Israel, the people remained faithful to the law of 
Moses. In the next generation, however, they fell into the 
worship of Baalim, the idols of the country. Then their 
career of conquest was checked, and they were given into 
the hands of their enemies. But, though punished, they 
were not forsaken by God. As often as they repented, he 
raised up judges, who delivered them from their oppressors. 
The most illustrious of these Judges were Othniel, Aod, 
Debbora, Gedeon, Jepht6, Samson, Heli, and Samuel. 

Othniel and Aod. — Chusan Rasathaim, king of Meso- 
potamia, was the first foreign conqueror that held idolatrous 
Israel in subjection. After the people had served him eight 
years, ' they cried to the Lord, who raised them up a deliv- 
erer, Othniel, the brother of Caleb. And the spirit of the 
Lord was in him, and under him the land had rest 40 years.' 
After his death, ' the children of Israel did evil again in the 
sight of the Lord, who strengthened against them Eglon, 
kingofMoab; and they served him 18 years. And after- 
wards they cried to the Lord, who raised them up a deliv- 
erer called Aod. By him Moab was humbled, and the land 
rested 80 years.' 

The Prophetess Debbora. — "And the children of Israel 
again did evil in the sight of the Lord, who delivered them 
up into the hands of the Canaanite Jabin, king of Asor. 
This prince had 900 chariots armed with scythes, and was 
at the head of a great confederacy in northern Palestine. 
For 20 years he grievously oppressed the Israelites, till at 
last Debbora, a prophetess, who judged Israel under a 
palm-tree, between Rama and Bethel in Mount Ephraim, 
sent for Barac of the tribe of Nephtali, and said to him : 
The Lord God hath commanded thee: Take with thee 
-to Mount Thabor 10,000 fighting men, and I will bring unto 
thee Sisera, the general of Jabin's army, and his chariots, 
and all his multitude, and I will deliver them into thy hands." 
When Sisera heard of Barac's presence upon Mount Thabor 
at the head of an army, he at once advanced with his whole 
force to attack him. Then Debbora said to Barac : "Arise, 
for this is the day wherein the Lord hath delivered Sisera 
into thy hands. And Barac went down from Mount Tha- 
bor ; and the Lord struck a terror into Sisera ; and the mul- 



B. C. I554-I050. THE JUDGES. IO5 

titude of the enemy was utterly destroyed. Sisera himself 
leaped from off his chariot, and, fleeing away on foot, sought 
refuge in the tent of Jael. While he slept, Jael took a nail 
of the tent, and a hammer ; and going in softly and silently, 
she put the nail upon his temples, and striking it with the 
hammer, drove it through his brains fast into the ground ; 
and, so passing from deep sleep to death, he fainted away 
and died. Thus did God that day humble Jabin, king of 
Canaan, before the children of Israel. They, growing daily 
stronger, with a mighty hand overpowered their old op- 
pressor, ti]l they quite destroyed him. And the land rested 
40 years." 

Gedeon. — Once more the children of Israel did evil in 
the sight of the Lord, and he delivered them into the hand 
of Midian 7 years. Every year the enemy came up, and 
* wasted all things as they were in the blade ; and they left 
nothing at all in Israel for sustenance of life, nor sheep, nor 
oxen, nor asses. For they and all their flocks came with their 
tents, and, like locusts, filled all places, wasting whatsoever 
they touched. And Israel was humbled exceedingly in the 
sight of Midian, and he cried to the Lord. And the next 
time the Midianites and Amalekites returned, the spirit of 
the Lord came upon Gedeon, and he blew a trumpet, and 
called round him Manasses, and Aser, and Zabulon, and 
Nephtali ; and they came to meet him. And the Lord said 
to Gedeon : The people that are with thee are many, and 
Midian shall not be delivered into their hands, lest Israel 
should glory against me, and say, I was delivered by my 
own strength. Speak to the people and proclaim in the 
hearing of all : Whoever is fearful and timorous, let him re- 
turn. So two-and-twenty thousand men at once returned to 
their homes ; and only ten thousand remained. And the 
Lord said to Gedeon : The people are still too many ; bring 
them to the water, and they who shall lap the water with 
their tongues, as dogs are wont to lap, thou shalt retain ; but 
let all the rest go away. Gedeon's number was then reduced 
to 300. These he divided into three companies, and gave 
them trumpets in their hands, and empty pitchers, and lamps 
within the pitchers, and bade them all, at the signal of his 
trumpet, to sound their trumpets also, and to shout his bat- 
tle-cry, To the Lord and to Gedeon! at the same time 
breaking the pitchers which covered their lights. Just as 
the middle watch was set, they took their posts on three sides 



Io6 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. III. 

of Midian, and sounded their trumpets and broke their 
pitchers, and held their lamps in their left hands and with 
their right the trumpets which they blew, and they cried 
out : The sword of the Lord and of Gedeon ! So all -the 
enemy's camp was troubled ; and, howling, the Midianites 
fled away, and they killed one another. But the men of 
Israel, gathering together, pursued after Midian, and killed 
their kings, Oreb and Zeb and Zebee and Salmana. Thus 
was accomplished the deliverance of Israel. After govern- 
ing the people 40 years, Gedeon died ; and soon the children 
of Israel turned again from the Lord, and sinned with 
Baalim.' 

Jephte. — The Israelites, in punishment of their multiplied 
idolatries, were next oppressed by the Ammonites, who 
attacked them from the east, and by the Philistines on the 
west. From the long and grievous oppression of the Ammon- 
ites they were freed by Jephte. As this valiant man went 
forth for battle, he made a vow to the Lord, saying : "If 
thou wilt deliver the children of Amnion into my hands, 
whatsoever shall first come forth out of the doors of my 
house, and shall meet me when I return in peace, the same 
will I offer a holocaust to the Lord." Llis expedition was 
crowned with complete success. But, as he returned into 
Maspha to his house, his only daughter met him with tim- 
brels and with dances. And when he saw her, he rent his 
garments, and cried, " Alas ! my daughter, thou hast de- 
ceived me, and thou thyself art deceived ; for I have opened 
my mouth to the Lord, and I cannot do otherwise." And 
she answered him : " My father, if thou hast opened thy 
mouth to the Lord, do to me whatever thou hast promised. 
Only let me alone for two months, that I may go about the 
mountains, and bewail that it was not my lot to be a bride 
and a mother in Israel." At the end of that time, she re- 
turned to her father, who ' did to her as he had vowed.' 

Samson. — The man who began to deliver Israel from the 
hand of the Philistines, was Samson, of the race of Dan. 
At an early age, the Spirit of the Lord began to be with him : 
and the divine inspiration took in him the especial form of vast 
personal strength, animated by undaunted bravery. At 18, 
being attacked by a young lion, he tore the animal as he would 
have torn a kid. Soon after, he went down to Ascalon, and 
slew there thirty men. At the time of the next harvest, he 
took 300 foxes, and tying them together, two and two, by 



B. C. I554-I050. THE JUDGES. IO7 

the tails, with a fire-brand fastened between them, he let 
them loose into the standing corn of the Philistines. The 
flame consumed not only the corn, but also the vineyards 
and the olive-yards. Not satisfied with this, Samson made 
a great havoc among the Philistines themselves also. The 
people of Judah, to appease their anger, agreed to deliver 
him bound into their hands. But, when he was brought into 
their camp, 'the Spirit of the Lord came mighty upon 
him ; and, as the flax is consumed with fire, so the bands 
with which he was bound were broken and loosed. And, 
finding a jaw-bone of an ass at hand, he slew with it a 
thousand men.' Samson next ventured into Gaza. On 
learning that he was among them/ the inhabitants hastened 
to shut the gate of the city, intending to kill him in the 
morning. But, rising at midnight, Samson tore away the gate 
with the posts and bar, and carried them on his shoulders* to 
the top of a hill looking towards Hebron. After this he loved 
a woman called Dalila, who was bribed by the lords of the 
Philistines to entice him to tell her wherein his great strength 
lay. "And when she pressed him very much, and contin- 
ually hung upon him for many days, giving him no rest, he 
said to her : A razor hath never passed over my head ; if 
my head be shaven, my strength will leave me." There- 
upon she sent for the princes of the Philistines ; and, making 
Samson sleep upon her knees, she had him shaven of his 
seven locks, and immediately his strength went from him. 
Then the Philistines took him, put out his eyes, and led him 
out to Gaza, bound in brazen fetters, and made him grind 
in the prison. 'And now his hair began to grow again. And 
the princes of the Philistines assembled together, to offer 
great sacrifices to Dagon their god, in thanksgiving for Sam- 
son's capture ; and the people requested that he should be 
brought forth to play before them. And, after he had played, 
he said to the lad who guided his steps : Suffer me to touch 
the pillars which support the whole house, and let me lean 
upon them. Then, imploring the Lord to restore to him 
his former strength, he bore with all his might upon the 
two pillars, and the house fell upon all the lords and all the 
people, and he died with them. He had judged Israel 20 
years.* 

Samuel. — Hostilities continued between the Israelites and 
the Philistines, during which the latter generally prevailed. 
On one occasion, in particular, 30,000 Israelites were slain, 



Id8 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. IV. 

among whom Ophni and Phinees, the son of the high-priest 
Heli, and the ark was taken. At last, Samuel, who had 
grown up before the Lord, and whom all Israel from Dan to 
Bersabee revered as a prophet," called the people to repen- 
tance. " If you put away the strange gods from among you, 
Baalim and Astaroth, and prepare your hearts unto the 
Lord, and serve him only, he will deliver you out of the 
hands of the Philistines." The children of Israel obeyed, 
and, when the Philistines came up against them, the Lord 
answered the prayers of Samuel by sending a violent storm 
of thunder, which caused the discomfiture of the invaders. 
The Philistines were humbled; the cities which they had 
taken from the Israelites were restored, and the hand of the 
Lord was against them all the days of Samuel. In his 
old age he made his sons judges. But they did not walk in 
his ways. The elders of Israel, therefore, came to Samuel, 
and said, " Behold thou art old ; thy sons walk not in thy 
ways ; now make us a king to judge us, as all nations have. 
And the Lord said to Samuel : Hearken to their voice ; they 
have rejected not thee, but Me, from reigning over them." 



CHAPTER IV. 

Saul. — David. — Solomon. — b. c. 1050-930. 



The Reign of Saul (b. c. 1050-1010). — In compliance 
with the divine injunction, Saul, the son of Cis, a man of the 
tribe of Benjamin, was anointed by Samuel to be the new 
king of Israel. His majestic appearance, together with his 
courage and moderation, soon gained him the respect of all. 
Being informed that the city of Jabes was closely besieged 
by the Ammonites, he attacked and cut them to pieces. Two 
years later, he gloriously repelled an invasion of the Philis- 
tines, the most persevering enemy of the Hebrews. He like- 
wise conquered several other nations in the neighborhood 
of his kingdom, but none so completely as the Amalekites, 
who were nearly all destroyed. Unfortunately, he began 
about this time to degenerate from his former virtue. For 



JB. C. IO50-97O. SAUL AND DA^D. 



I69 



this reason, the Almighty rejected him ; and Samuel, by 
divine command, anointed David king. Saul's reign was 
henceforth but one continued series of evils and crimes. He 
persecuted David, and sought by every means to destroy him. 
In the 1 last battle which he fought with the Philistines, that on 
Mount Gelboe, his army was cut to pieces ; three of his sons 
were slain ; and he himself, grievously wounded and dreading 
to fall alive into the hands of the enemy, caused his death by 
falling on his own sword. 

David at Jerusalem (b. c. 1002).— After the battle of 
Mount Gelboe, the men of Judah anointed David king 
over their tribe, at Hebron. But seven years and a half 
elapsed before he was fully recognized as king of all Israel. 
His first care, when he saw his power firmly established, was 
to attack Jerusalem, the strong city of the Jebusites, whom 
the men of Judah had never been able to dislodge. Jerusalem 
consisted of an upper and a lower town. The latter was 
immediately taken, but the upper city held out. The king 
then proclaimed to his host, that the first man to scale the rocky 
height and kill a Jebusite, should be made chief captain of his 
army. Joab's superior agility gained him the day; and the 
fastness of Sion was at last taken. To this city David 
removed the seat of government. He embellished it with 
many new buildings ; and he erected a palace there with the 
help of workmen sent by Hiram, king of Tyre. He also set 
up in it a new tent for the ark ; and thither the venerable 
relic was carried on the shoulders of the Levites, amidst the 
rejoicings of the people. On this occasion, David made 
a complete arrangement of the musical service ; and care 
was taken by him, that the whole order of divine worship 
should henceforth, be carried out according to the law of 
Moses. 

Victories of David. — His own throne and the service 
of God's sanctuary being thus established, David advanced 
to the final conquest of the enemies of Israel. By his succes- 
sive victories over the Philistines, the Moabites, the Syrians, 
and the Edomites, he carried his frontiers ' from the river of 
Egypt to the great river Euphrates.' Thus the bounds of the 
Promised Land were now reached; but these extended 
limits were preserved only during the reign of David and 
Solomon — a period of about sixty years. During that time, 
the kingdom of Israel was no longer a petty state, but truly 
one of the great Oriental monarchies. 



10 



HO THl? ISRAELITES. Chapt. IV. 

David's SiN and Misfortune. — The glory of the first 
period of David's reign is overshadowed by his great sin, 
the punishment of which was to render its second part so dis- 
astrous. In the midst of his prosperity, yielding to a horri- 
ble temptation, he became guilty of adultery and homicide. 
Rebuked for this double crime by the prophet Nathan, he 
became sensible of its enormity : " I have sinned against the 
Lord." But neither his tears nor exemplary penance averted 
those temporal consequences of sin — the woes denounced on 
him and his house. His days were embittered by the pre- 
mature and unhappy death of some of his children, by the 
wicked lives of others, and especially by the ingratitude, 
revolt, and tragical end of his son Absalom. This rebellion 
was no sooner suppressed than it was followed by another, 
which renewed the king's anxiety ; and, afterwards, by the 
plagues of famine and pestilence that raged among his sub- 
jects. 

Death of David ; his Character. — These domestic 
and political trials were at length terminated ; tranquillity 
was restored to the nation, and prosperity to the king. He 
died in an advanced age, after a reign of forty years (b. C. 970), 
leaving behind him the reputation of a great monarch, a great 
conqueror, a great prophet, and although for a time a slave 
to a criminal passion, yet a model for all sincere and humble 
penitents. To his own people his was the name most dearly 
cherished after that of their first ancestor, Abraham ; and the 
highest eulogy passed on the best of his successors is, that 
they followed his example. 

Solomon's (b. c. 970^-930) Power, Magnificence, 
and Wisdom. — The reign of Solomon marks the climax of 
the Hebrew state. His father's conquests had carried the Jew- 
ish dominions to the borders named in the promise to 
Abraham. Solomon, in order to facilitate his commercial 
enterprises, erected Tadmor (afterwards, the celebrated 
Palmyra) in the desert ; and built a superb navy in the ports 
of Aziongaber and Elath, on the eastern arm of the Red Sea. 

*The chronology of the kingly period has ever been the source 
of special difficulty, varying with the different Biblical interpreters. 
Of late, however, owing to the recent discoveries in Assyria, the 
chronological obscurities of this period have been partially cleared 
up ; and we have accordingly brought lower down than was done 
before, the dates of the reigns of Solomon and his successors. — See 
La Civillci Cattolica, 1885. 



B. C. 970-936. SOLOMON. HI 

He also strengthened his alliance with Tyre, which at once 
gave him security in the north and a share in the commerce 
of Phoenicia. From Egypt he obtained the city of Gazer, 
thereby gaining the command of the Philistine plain, the 
ancient highway between Egypt and Assyria. Thus power- 
ful by sea and land, the king of Israel was in truth the great- 
est of all eastern monarchs. 

The magnificence of his court was unrivalled ; and the 
happiness of his subjects uninterrupted. The Israelites, vastly 
increased in numbers, dwelt safely all his days, ' every man 
under his vine and under his fig-tree, eating and drinking 
and making merry/ But all this prosperity was transcended 
by the king's wisdom and ' largeness of heart,' and knowledge 
in all the learning of his age. He gave equal attention to 
the lessons of practical morals and to the facts of natural 
science. * He spoke three thousand proverbs, and his songs 
were a thousand and five ; and all peoples and kings of the 
earth came to receive from his own lips the wisdom of which 
they had heard.' 

Building of the Temple. — Solomon availed himself of 
so many advantages, to build in Jerusalem a temple worthy, 
by its magnificence, to be the house of solemn worship and 
the special residence of the Most High. This wondrous 
structure occupied upwards of 150,000 workmen, and 
required full seven years for its completion. It was made of 
costly materials, and adorned with the most beautiful speci- 
mens of art. The time chosen for its dedication was the 
Feast of Tabernacles — the most joyous of the year, rendered 
doubly so on this occasion by the splendor of the ceremonies, 
the stupendous sacrifices of 22,000 oxen and 120,000 sheep, 
and the lengthened prolongation of the festivities to a period 
of 14 days. 

Solomon's other Buildings. — After 'the dedication of 
the temple, several years were occupied in the completion of 
the king's own house, and of his other great works both at 
Jerusalem and in various parts of his dominions. A separate 
palace was built for his Egyptian queen, the daughter of 
Pharaoh. He had also a summer palace in Lebanon, and 
gardens at Etham, like the 'paradises' of the eastern 
kings. To these works were added aqueducts to supply 
Sion with water, and the repair of its walls together with the 
building of Mello and several store-cities, or depots for com- 
merce. 



ii2 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. V, 

Solomon's Idolatry and Death. — Amidst these splen- 
did achievements, the uxorious king, beguiled by luxury and 
fair idolatresses, was seduced from God's service — a most 
terrible example of the frailty of the human heart, showing 
that neither talents, nor wisdom, nor advanced age, nor even 
the long practice of virtue, can give perfect security against 
its attacks. Solomon died at Jerusalem, in the 40th year of 
his reign, and was buried in the royal sepulchre, in the city 
of David (b, c. 930). 



CHAPTER V. 

The Two Separate Kingdoms of Judah and Israel, 
b. c. 930-722. 



The Schism of the Ten Tribes (b. c. 930). — The 
glory of Solomon's splendid kingdom was not to continue. 
Already in the latter part of his reign, luxury had brought 
its usual corruption and weakness. The purity of religion 
was impaired ; the people groaned under taxation, and dis- 
content prevailed. The tyranny and insolence of Roboam, 
the son and successor of Solomon, completed the ruin of the 
state, causing ten of the twelve tribes to repudiate his sway 
and adhere to Jeroboam. By this disruption were formed 
the separate kingdoms of Judah and Israel. 

Relative Population and Strength of Judah and 
Israel. — The kingdom of Israel, or of the Ten Tribes, 
included about two-thirds of the Jewish population, and 
embraced more than the same proportion of the land, and that 
much the best in quality. But the powerful tribe of 
Judah retained the capital, with the accumulated treasures of 
Solomon ; and all the moral and religious elements of great- 
ness were on its side. 

Jeroboam's Idolatry. — The very first acts of Jeroboam 
cut off Israel from the worship of Jehovah. Fearing lest his 
subjects should return to their former allegiance, if they were 
allowed to adore in Jerusalem, he made them offer their 
worship to two golden calves, which he set up in the ancient 



B. C. 93O-722. KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL. ±1^ 

sanctuaries of Dan and Bethel, at the northern and southern 
extremities of his kingdom. His example was followed by 
his successors, of whom, with scarcely an exception, we read, 
1 he did evil in the sight of Jehovah, and walked in the way of 
Jeroboam, who made Israel to sin.' 

God's Worship maintained at Jerusalem. — The re- 
ligious revolt of Jeroboam drove all the priests and Levites 
to Jerusalem, where the tribe of Judah was preserved from 
defection expressly to maintain God's worship at its chosen 
seat. With the line of David remained the promise of the 
kingdom, leading up to the Messiah ; and in that line, the 
crown was handed down, generally from father to son, while 
Israel presents a succession of murders and usurpations. In 
the whole period of 208 years, from the disruption to the 
captivity of Israel, 12 kings of Judah occupy the same space 
as 19 kings of Israel ; and the moral superiority of the former 
was still more conspicuous. 

Ultimate Fate of the two Kingdoms. — The two 
kingdoms were equally distinguished in their final fate. The 
sentence of captivity was executed upon Israel 135 years 
sooner than on Judah; and, while the Ten Tribes never 
returned to their land, and only a scattered remnant of these 
shared the restoration of Judah, the latter became once more 
a powerful nation, not free from the faults of their fathers, 
but worshipping God with great purity, serving Him with 
heroic zeal, and preparing for the restoration of the true 
spiritual kingdom under the last great Son of David, Christ 
Jesus. 

Roboam (b. c. 930-914). — Besides Judah, Benjamin 
adhered to Roboam. The united forces of these two tribes 
were called out by Roboam, who strove to bring back his 
former subjects to obedience, thus inaugurating a state of 
war between the rival kingdoms, which lasted for 60 years. 
He not only failed to subdue the Israelites, but, like his 
father, he was corrupted by his numerous harem ; and both 
king and people fell into idolatry and vice. The punish- 
ment came at once. The country was invaded, Jerusalem 
taken, and the public treasure carried away by Sesac, king 
of Egypt. 

Abias (b. c. 914-912). — Hostilities between the kingdoms 
of Judah and Israel continued with unabated fury, during the 
reign of Abias, the son and successor of Roboam. Abias, 
through the divine assistance, gained a decisive victory over 



Ii4 



THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. V. 



Jeroboam, killing as many as 500,000 of the men of Israel. 
Yet, so great a blessing of God's providence could not 
induce him to persevere in the way of virtue. He imitated 
the infidelity of his father, and died before completing the 
third year of his reign. 

Asa (b. c. 912-871). — His son Asa was more faithful in 
the service of God. He used the ten years' peace secured by 
his father's great victory, to fortify his cities and increase his 
forces. With these he encountered and routed ' Zara the 
Cushite ' (Ethiopian), who had invaded Judah with a million 
of soldiers and 300 chariots. The invader is thought to have 
been a king of Egypt ; and, at all events, Asa seems to have 
thrown off the tributary yoke imposed by Sesacon Roboam. 
Asa died of the gout, in the 41st year of his reign, having 
been contemporary with all the first seven kings of Israel- — ■ 
Jeroboam, Nadab, Baasa, Ela, Zambri, Amri, and Achab. 

Josaphat (b. C 871-847). — Under Josaphat, the king- 
dom of Judah reached a degree of splendor approaching to 
that which it had possessed under kings David and Solomon. 
Josaphat raised his army to the extraordinary number of 
1,160,000 men.* His power was respected at home and 
abroad. The Philistines paid him tribute, and the Arabs 
brought him considerable presents. Josaphat deserved this 
high state of prosperity by his valor, his fidelity to God, his 
exertions against idolatrous practices, his zeal for the 
religious instructions of his subjects, and his impartial 
administration of justice. He sent priests and Levites 
throughout the various cities of Judah, to instruct the people 
in the divine law ; and recommended to magistrates the 
greatest care in the discharge of their important functions. 

Towards the end of his reign, Josaphat was unexpectedly 
attacked by the Moabites, Ammonites, and Edomites. In 
this emergency he had recourse, as usual, to the divine 
assistance which had never failed him, and endeavored to 
secure it by public prayer and fasting. When he approached 
the camp of his enemies, he found that they had turned their 
arms against themselves, and destroyed one another to the 
last. After this fresh mark of God's favor to his people, 

*This number will not appear incredible, if we call to mind, 
that every man capable of bearing arms was obliged to perform 
military service. Yet it is but fair to add, that a mistake may 
have crept into the text. The use of letters as numerical signs, 
in the original, has more than once occasioned errors of copyists. 



B. C. 930-722. KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND" ISRAEL. J 15 

Josaphat redoubled his works of zeal and piety. He is justly* 
considered one of the most religious monarchs that ruled 
over the Jewish nation. 
• Ach;ab (b. c. 875-854) King of Israel and Elias. — 
The name of Achab has attained an evil eminence in the 
world's history. His fate was decided by his marriage with 
Jezabel, the daughter of Ethbaal, king of Tyre. By her in- 
fluence, the worship of Baal and other Phoenician deities 
was established throughout Israel. Thereupon Elias the 
Thesbite, said to Achab : "As the Lord liveth, the God of 
Israel, in whose sight I stand, dew nor rain shall not be these 
years, but according to the words of my mouth." A drought 
of three years and six months, with a famine consequent 
thereon, followed, when Elias again appeared before Achab, 
requesting him to bring all the prophets of Baal unto Mount 
Carmel, where they would offer a sacrifice to their gods, 
whilst he would offer one to the Lord. Achab, therefore, 
gathered together the prophets unto Mount Carmel. "Call 
ye on the names of your gods," Elias said to them, " and I 
will call on the name of my Lord ; and the God who shall 
answer by fire, let him be God." So they called on the 
name of Baal, from morning even till noon ; but in vain. 
Then Elias said to the people : " Come ye unto me." And 
he built an altar, and laid the wood in order, and cut the 
bullock to pieces, and laid it upon the wood, and caused the 
whole to be profusely covered with water. Then he prayed : 
" O Lord God of Abraham and Isaac and Jacob, show this 
day that thou art the God of Israel, and I thy servant. Hear 
me, O Lord, hear me, that this people may learn that thou 
art the Lord God." As he ended this prayer, the fire of the 
Lord fell, and consumed the holocaust; and the people, fall- 
on their faces, exclaimed: " The Lord he is God, the Lord 
he is God !" Elias then killed all the prophets of Baal ; and, 
retiring to the top of Carmel, cast himself down upon the 
earth, put his face between his knees, and prayed, until the 
heavens grew dark with clouds and winds, and there fell a 
great rain. Even such signal miracles failed to release 
Achab from the bondage of his heart and soul to Jezabel. 
She not only made him persevere in his idolatry, but led 
him to commit a fresh crime of crying injustice. 

Naboth's Vineyard. — The city of Jezrahel was now the 
favorite residence of Achab. Near his palace was a vine- 
yard, which its owner, Naboth, prized dearly as the inheritance 



n6 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. V. 

of his fathers, and which accordingly he would not yield to 
the king either in exchange for a better or for money. Then 
Jezabel said to Achab : " I will give thee the vineyard of Na- 
both the Jezrahelite." So she induced the elders of Israel to. 
condemn Naboth to be stoned, on the evidence of foresworn 
witnesses, after which she sent Achab to take possession of 
the vineyard. Here the king was met by Elias, who de- 
nounced to him this judgment of God, " Behold I will bring 
evil upon thee ; I will cut down thy posterity. The dogs 
shall eat Jezabel in the field of Jezrahel. In the place where 
the dogs licked the blood of Naboth shall dogs lick thy 
blood, even thine." Terrified by these words Achab hum- 
bled himself with fasting and sackcloth. The sentence 
nevertheless received the full execution, though only after 
his death. 

JORAM, OCHOZIAH, ATHALIA, AND JOAS (B. C. 847-797). 

Joram, son of Josaphat, whom his father in his lifetime associ- 
ciated to himself in the government of Judah, had for wife 
the wicked daughter of Achab and Jezabel, Athalia. This 
princess brought into Judah the same practice of idolatry 
that had long prevailed in Israel. In punishment thereof, 
Judah lost her supremacy over Edom ; Jerusalem was stormed 
by the rebel Philistines and Arabians, who massacred or 
carried off Joram 's wives and children, except his youngest 
son, Ochoziah; in fine, Joram himself died prematurely of a 
loathsome disease. Joram's successor, Ochoziah, during his 
short reign, was entirely under the influence of his mother 
Athalia, till he was killed by Jehu, whom the Lord had 
caused to be anointed king of Israel in place of, Joram, son 
of Achab and brother to Athalia. No sooner was Ochoziah 
dead, than Athalia usurped the throne (b. c. 842); and, 
the more securely to maintain herself in power, she ordered 
the massacre of all the royal seed. But a new-born son of 
Ochoziah, Joas, was saved by his aunt Josaba, who hid him 
6 years in the house of the Lord. In the seventh year, the 
high-priest Joiada formed in his behalf a great conspiracy 
of the priests and Levites and the princes of Judah. Joas 
was crowned in the temple, and Athalia's cry of treason was 
stifled in her blood. With her the last of Achab's house 
perished. 

"Joas did that which was right before the Lord, all the 
days that Joiada the priest taught him." After the death of 
the pontiff, the princes of Judah persuaded him to restore 



B. C. 93Q-722. KINGDOMS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL. Hy 

idolatry; and, when the high-priest Zachariah, the son of 
Joiada, remonstrated, he was stoned to death, between the 
altar and the temple, by the command of the king whom his 
father had proclaimed on that very spot. The martyr's 
dying prayer, " The Lord see and require it," began to be 
fulfilled within a year. Hazael, king of Syria, who had 
overrun the eastern province of Israel, pillaged Jerusalem, 
and inflicted all sorts of outrages on Joas and his nobles. 
Joas was soon after assassinated by two of his officers. 

Amasiah (b. c. 797-773) the son and successor of Joas, 
at first ' did what was good in the sight of Jehovah ;' and his 
faith was rewarded by a great victory over Edom. But, 
later, he connived at idolatry ; and having wantonly chal- 
lenged Joas king of Israel, he was defeated, and brought back 
a prisoner to Jerusalem by the victorious enemy, who pil- 
laged his capital and broke down a considerable portion of 
the city wall. Fifteen years later, Amasiah, flying from a 
conspiracy, which his tyranny had provoked, was overtaken 
and killed at Lachis. 

AZARIAH (OR OZIAH), JOATHAM, AND ACHAZ (B. C. 773- 

727). — Azariah was but 16 years old, when the people of 
Judah made him king in the room of Amasiah his father. 
So long as he remained under the influence of ' Zachariah, 
who understood and saw God, he did what was right in the 
eyes of the Lord, and the Lord helped him against the 
Philistines, and against the Arabians, and against the Am- 
monites ; and his name was spread abroad even to the en- 
trance of Egypt for his frequent victories. But, when he 
was made strong, his heart was lifted up to his destruction.' 
Despite the high-priest's warning he attempted to usurp the 
priestly office. But, as he was, holding in his hand the censer 
to burn incense, he was smitten with leprosy. Azariah re- 
mained a leper unto the day of his death ; and he dwelt in a 
house apart; and Joatham his son governed the king's house, 
and judged the people of the land.' 

Joatham ' did that which was right before the Lord, and 
was rewarded for his piety by signal victories over the chil- 
dren of Ammon. But he could not correct his people of 
their evil ways. Achaz, therefore, who succeeded him, 
found them most willing to imitate his idolatry. The divine 



n8 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. VI. 

of the king of Israel, Phakee, who slew of Judah 120,000 
valiant men in one day, and moreover carried away to Sa- 
maria, besides an immense booty, 200,000 women, boys, and 
girls. These prisoners, it is true, were released at the com- 
mand of the prophet Oded. But, soon after, the Edomites 
came and slew many of Judah, while the Philistines took 
many of her strong cities ; and the kings of Syria and Israel 
renewed their attacks. In this extremity, Achaz was driven 
to seek the protection of the powerful Assyrian monarch, 
Theglathphalasar II. What evils Syria and Israel suffered 
at the hands of the Assyrian, and at what price Achaz himself 
bought the protection of his powerful ally, will be related in 
the history of Assyria. 

Fall of Samaria (b. c. 722). — For years past, God's 
prophets — Jonas, Osee, Amos, Abdias, and others, had kept 
warning the Israelites of their approaching doom. Already 
had the whole population east of the Jordan been carried into 
captivity, and now the time was come for the entire fulfill- 
ment of the prophecies of woe. Osee, king of Israel, in re- 
liance on the support of the Egyptian Sabaco, threw off the 
Assyrian yoke, lately imposed by Theglathphalasar II. But, 
1 the king of Assyria came up throughout all the land, and 
went up to Samaria, and besieged it three years, at the end 
of which time the Lord removed Israel from His face, and 
they were carried away out of their land into Assyria.' 
Nineteen kings, belonging to no fewer than seven different 
families, had reigned over Israel ; not one of these princes 
was faithful to the Lord. 



CHAPTER VI. 

The last Kings of Judah. — b. c. 722-587. 

Hezekiah (b. c. 727-696), the son and successor of Achaz 
king of Judah, ' did that which was good before the Lord, 
according to all that David his father had done. He de- 
stroyed the high places, and brake the statues to pieces, and 
cut down the groves, and brake the brazen serpent* which 

* It had become an object of idolatry, 



B. C. 722-587. LAST KINGS OF JUDAH. H9 

Moses had made. He stuck to the Lord, and kept his com- 
mandments. Wherefore the Lord was also with him ; and 
in all things to which he went forth, he behaved himself 
wisely. And he rebelled against the king of the Assyrians, 
and served him not. He smote the Philistines as far as Gaza, 
and all their borders.* 

In the 24th* year of his reign, however, he was attacked by 
Sennacherib. The invader first exacted 300 talents of silver 
and 30 of gold, for the payment of which sum Hezekiah 
had not only to empty the royal treasure, but to strip the 
temple of all the precious metal which adorned its doors and 
pillars. Not content with this, Sennacherib f sent against 
Jerusalem a strong army under his tartan or general -in-chief, 
supported by two high officers of the court — the rabsaris or 
(chief eunuch) and the rabshakeh (chief cupbearer). These, 
after defying the helpless king, invited the people to accept 
a complete transplantation. " But the people held their 
peace. And Hezekiah sent his servants to the prophet 
Isaiah, who said to them, Thus shall ye say to your master : 
Be not afraid ; the king of Assyria shall not come into this 
city, nor shoot an arrow into it, nor cast a trench about it. 
By the way he came, he shall return. And it came to pass 
that night, that an angel of the Lord slew in the camp % of 
the Assyrians 185,000. And Sennacherib departing went 
away ; and he returned, and abode in Ninive." 

Manasses (b. c. 696-641). — Instead of imitating his 
father's piety, " Manasses did evil in the sight of the Lord, 
according to the idols of the nations, which the Lord de- 
stroyed from before the children of Israel. And he built up 
the high places, which Hezekiah his father had destroyed ; 
and he set up altars to Baal, and made groves, and adored 
all the host of heaven ; and he built altars for all the host of 
heaven in the two courts of the temple. And he made his 
son pass through the fire, and he used divination, and ob- 
served omens, and appointed necromancers, and multiplied 
soothsayers ; and by "him his people were seduced to do 

*Not the 14th, the year found in the modern editions of the Vul- 
gate. 

t Sennacherib was then besieging- Lachis, a frontier town of Ju- 
dah, and a place of great strength. 

JLikely under the walls of Jerusalem, though some say at Lobna, 
and others at Pelusium. For obvious reasons, the Assyrian annals 
throw no light whatever on this catastrophe. 



120 THE ISRAELITES. Chapt. VI. 

evil beyond all the nations which the Lord destroyed before 
the children of Israel." As, however, many opposed his 
impieties, " Manasses shed also much innocent blood, till he 
filled Jerusalem up to the mouth. And the Lord spake to 
him and to his people ; and they would not harken. There- 
fore he brought upon them the captains of the army of the 
king of the Assyrians — Asarhaddon ; and they took Ma- 
nasses, and carried him bound with chains and fetters to 
Babylon." The severity of his imprisonment brought him to 
repentance ; and, being restored to his kingdom, he effected 
a partial religious restoration. 

Amon (b. C. 641—639), the son and successor of Manasses, 
reigned two years, during which he followed his father's 
idolatries, without sharing his repentance, He fell the vic- 
tim of a court conspiracy, leaving an infant son, Josiah, whom 
the conspirators raised to the throne in his stead. 

Josiah (b. c. 639-608) was 8 years old, when he began 
to reign. The deep corruption which prevailed during his 
minority, is drawn in the blackest colors by Sophoniah and 
Jeremiah, who, as well as Habacuc, began to prophesy in 
his reign. But, in the 16th year of his age, Josiah ' began to 
seek after the God of David his father,' and his zeal was 
quickened by the high-priest's discovery, in the temple, of 
the Book of the Lord, which was read, before the king and 
people, with the force of a new revelation. Josiah, therefore, 
destroyed all the vessels which had been made for Baal, and 
for the grove, and for all the host of heaven ; broke the 
idols to pieces, and slew the diviners and the soothsayers and 
all the priests of the high places. And he ' served the Lord 
with all his heart, and with all his soul, and with all his 
strength. Yet the Lord turned not away from the wrath of 
his great indignation, wherewith his anger was kindled against 
Judah because of the abomination of Manasses.' Nor was 
the time far off when he would ' remove Judah also from 
before his face, as he had removed Israel.' The first in the 
train of events which now led rapidly to that consummation 
was the disastrous death of Josiah at Mageddo, whither he 
had gone to oppose the march of Pharaoh-Nechao towards 
the Euphrates. 

First Captivity of Judah (b. c. 605). — After the death 
of Josiah, Joachaz ascended the throne, but v/as shortly de- 
posed by Nechao, who gave the crown to Joakim, his brother. 
Three years later, Joakim was attacked by Nabuchodonosor, 



B. C. 722-5S7. LAST KINGS OF JUDAtt. I2 l 

who had just destroyed the Egyptian power in Western 
Asia, and was compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of 
Babylon, to pay a heavy tribute, and to deliver a large 
number of hostages. Among the prisoners sent to Babylon 
on this 'occasion, were Daniel and his three companions, who 
rose afterwards to positions of eminence in the land of their 
captivity. Daniel, in particular, became the chief of the 
Chaldean order, governor of Babylon, and the trusted coun- 
sellor of the monarch. 

The Great Captivity (b. c. 597). — Joakim after being 
deposed and led to Babylon, was reinstated in the royal 
dignity, to reign as a vassal of Babylon. At the end of three 
years, however, he rebelled, in vain reliance on aid from 
Egypt. Nabuchodonosor, at first contented himself with 
sending against his rebellious vassals bodies of Chaldeans, 
Syrians, Ammonites, and Moabites. But, at the end of 4 
years, he marched in person against Jerusalem, where the 
son of Joakim, Jeconiah or Joachin, had just succeeded his 
father. The city was invested, and only saved from storm by 
the surrender of Jeconiah and his mother, his harem, and 
all his princes and officers, who with all the warriors and 
skilled artisans were carried to Babylon. This is called the 
great captivity of Judah. 

Destruction of Jerusalem (b. c. 587). — On leaving 
Jerusalem, Nabuchodonosor gave the crown to Sedekiah, an 
uncle of Joachin. The reign of this last Jewish king was but 
one series of intrigues with Egypt and with the captive 
Hebrews in Babylon. At length, relying on the aid of 
Pharaoh- hophra (Apries), Sedekiah openly revolted, when 
Nabuchodonosor came against Jerusalem with all the forces 
of his empire. The Jews made a desperate resistance, and 
the city yielded only to famine. By the exasperated con- 
querors, its magnificent temple, its palaces, and all its houses, 
were given to the flames ; its walls were razed to the ground. 
Sedekiah beheld his sons slaughtered before his face ; his 
eyes were put out ; he was bound with chains, and brought 
to Babylon with the rest of his people. — Their subsequent 
fate we shall learn in connection with the history of 'the 
Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. 



11 



PART V. 



THE CHALDEANS, ASSYRIANS, AND BABYLONIANS. 

FROM THEIR ORGANIZATION AS NATIONS, TO THEIR 
SUBJUGATION BY THE PERSIANS IN B. C. 538. 



CHAPTER I. 
Chaldea, Babylonia, and Assyria, previous to 1300 b. c. 

Geographical Position of Assyria, Babylonia, 
Chaldea, and Susiana. — The Greek historians, who re- 
garded Assyria and Babylonia politically as the same em- 
pire, \vith its seat first at Ninive and afterwards at Babylon, 
include both countries under the name of Assyria. But As- 
syria lay chiefly on the left bank of the Upper Tigris, between 
the river and the chain of Zagros, though it also included 
the right bank to an indefinite extent towards the Euphrates 
and its tributary the Chaboras (Khabour). 

Babylonia comprised Lower Mesopotamia, together with 
the alluvial plain between the right bank of the Euphrates 
and Arabia — to which the name of Chaldea is more particu- 
larly given. 

On the eastern side of the Tigris, close to the Persian 
Gulf, was the land of Elain, also called Susiana from Susa 
its chief city. 

Fertility of Assyria and Babylonia. — In ancient 
times, Assyria and Babylonia were noted for their productive- 
ness. The upper undulating plains of Assyria, besides their 
rich timber, afforded beautiful pasture-grounds. The hot 
and rainless alluvium of Babylonia was of surpassing fertility, 
when irrigated by the canals which intersected its whole sur- 
face. It is the only country where wheat is known to be in- 
digenous, and it is said to have yielded two crops yearly, 

123 



I24 THE CHALDEANS. Chapt. I. 

with an increase of two or even three hundred-fold, besides 
an after-pasture for cattle. The date-palm once covered the 
whole surface of Babylonia with a forest of verdure. This 
wonderful tree furnished the people with bread, wine, vin- 
egar, honey, porridge, and ropes ; with a fuel equal to char- 
coal, and with a means of fattening cattle and sheep, besides 
supplying timber for wooden houses, and for the roofs, li- 
nings, and partitions of the brick buildings. A Persian poem 
celebrated the 360 uses of the palm. Indeed, Babylonia 
was once reckoned among the most fertile countries in the 
world. It is now almost a complete desert. 

Early Civilization in the Land of Sennaar. — 
Though the existing records of Egypt give her precedence 
in point of time, as a centre of primeval civilization, yet from 
the notices in Scripture, we may infer that political societies 
were organized, and cities built, in the land of Sennaar 
earlier than on the Nile. The posterity of Noe were soon 
attracted to Mesopotamia by the extraordinary fertility of the 
land ; and, besides an abundant supply of food and the means 
of intercourse afforded by its river, they found there also 
the readiest materials for building. Their houses were formed 
of the straight tall trunks and broad fronds of the palm-tree. 
For city walls, towers of defence, and temples, they- used 
bricks hardened in the sun or burned like ours. These were 
cemented by means of ordinary mortar, or with the bitumen 
which springs up in many parts of the plain. In the land 
of Sennaar, the arts of raising vast edifices and of expres- 
sing thought by writing were known from the first settlement 
of the country, and never perished. 

The Chaldean Empire (b. c. ?-about 1500). — Chus, or 
Cush, son of Cham, begot Nimrod, and Nimrod 'began to 
be mighty on the earth. And the beginning of his kingdom* 
was Babylon or Babel, and Arach, and Achad, and Cha- 
lanne,f in the land of Sennaar.' These cities Nimrod either 
built or subdued. ' He was a mighty hunter before the Lord,' 
and, not unlikely, the earliest type of those hateful despots 
and conquerors who make men their prey. Nimrod's king- 
dom is thought to have comprised Lower Mesopotamia, 

* Genesis, x. We have here clearly the first kingdom upon 
record. 

fit is supposed that the ruins of Arack (or Erech, now Warka), 
and Chalanne (Catnek), as well as those of Babel, have been iden- 
tified. 



B. C. P-I500, CHALDEAN EMPIRE. l^e 

with Ur* for its capital. — The reign of the Hunter was fol- 
lowed, at what interval we cannot say, by that of the Builder 
— Urukh, whose accession may have fallen about 2300 
B. c. Vast temples were erected by Urukh at Arach, Ur, 
Calneh, and Larsa, which required an enormous amount of 
naked human strenglh, and no inconsiderable architectural 
skill and knowledge. — We have the name of a third Chal- 
dean ruler, Hammurabi, who reigned towards 2103 b. c. 
Small tablets of a private character have been found, describ- 
ing business transactions which took place at Babylon during 
his reign. 

After a temporary subjection to Susa.f the Chaldeans re- 
gained their independence, and extended their dominion into 
the upper part of the Mesopotamian valley. But, from about 
B. c. 1500, Assyria, which till then seems to have occupied 
a subordinate position, gradually rose to greatness ; and, 
within two centuries, acquired supremacy over its former 
masters. 

The Chaldeans. — Less ancient than the Egyptian, the 
Chaldean monarchy preceded every other empire or kingdom 
upon the soil of Asia. While the Aryan, Turanian, and even 
the Semitic tribes, still lived in the nomadic state, the Cush- 
ite settlers in Lower Babylonia betook themselves to agri- 
culture, erected temples, built cities, and established a strong 
government. To them the Assyrians, Medians, and Persians, 
were indebted for their architecture, their decorative art, 
their science, and their literature. Even as late as the Par- 
thian domination, the Chaldeans continued as a distinct 
people. When they ceased to have a separate national ex- 
istence, their name was not lost ; and it is in memory of the 
successful cultivation of their favorite science by the people 
of Nimrod, from his time to Alexander, that the professors 
of astronomical and astrological learning continued, even in 
Roman times, to receive the appellation of Chaldeans. 

Primitive Assyre\. — Immediately after the notice con- 
cerning Nimrod, in x Chapt. of Genesis, we read : ' Out of 

•''Babylon did not rise to metropolitan importance till after 1800 
b. c. 

fOne of the most ancient of Asiatic cities, Susa, the Elamitic 
capital, formed the centre of a nationality which endured from 
2300 b. c. to the time of Darius Hystaspis (b. c. 520). Here reigned 
Kudur-Lagamer, the Chodorlahomor {Gen. xiv) of Abraham's 
time, who, not content with his inheritance of Elam and Chaldea, 
or Babylonia, extended his conquests into Syria and Palestine. 



I2 6 GREEK LEGENDS 

the land of Sennaar came forth Assur, who built Ninive ana 
the streets of the city, and Chale (Calah) ; Resen also between 
Ninive and Chale.' Besides this short reference, together 
with Balaam's prophecy of the conquests of Assyria, this 
country does not appear in Scripture history till the mission 
of Jonas to Ninive and till the empire comes in contact with 
Israel in the 8th cent. B. C. The only liter a,7y records of her 
early condition are the romantic legends of the Greek writers, 
which passed for history, till the late discoveries made among 
her ruined palaces revealed her own authentic records. 

Greek Legends concerning Assyria. — The Greeks 
used the name of Assyria, politically, for the whole series of 
states which succeeded one another in the valley of the Tigris 
and Euphrates, from a mythical antiquity to the time of 
Cyrus. What they had learned from popular traditions, or 
from Persian poets and romancers, they strung together into 
a form suited to amuse their countrymen and to illustrate 
their political ideas. Knowing nothing of the primitive 
Babylonian kingdoms, they placed Ninive at the head of all 
the Asiatic states, with Ninus, as the king who founded the 
empire ; Semiramis, as the more heroic queen who extended 
it ; and their luxurious but politic son Ninyas, as the one that 
impressed upon it the type of an oriental despotism, till they 
reached the catastrophe, in the drama, with the last king — 
Sardanapalus, on whom falls the long-contracted Nemesis of 
tyranny and luxury, but whose degeneracy is redeemed 
by some flashes of heroic spirit and his final self-sacrifice. 
Though these Grecian stories are wholly destitute of historical 
value, still must they be known, if not as history, at least as 
legends. ^ 

Ninus. — The conquests assigned by the Greeks to Ninus, 
are not a bad summary of the spread of the Assyrian empire. 
His first exploit is the conquest of Babylonia, recently over- 
run by the Arabs. Next he marches against Armenia, whose 
king submits to him as a subject-ally. The resistance of the 
king of Media is punished with crucifixion ; and in the course 
of 17 years, Ninus renders himself master of all the lands 
from the Indies to the Tanai's {Doii) and the P\lediterranean 
Sea. He now rebuilt Ninive, which he called after his own 
name, and made it the largest and most flourishing city of 
the world. 

Semiramis. — The Greeks made Semiramis daughter of the 
great goddess of Ascalon, Decerto. Exposed by her mother 



Concerning the Assyrians. 127 

to perish, but saved and brought up by a shepherd, Semira- 
mis became the wife first of the governor of Syria,* and after- 
wards of Ninus, whom, after his death, she succeeded on the 
throne* In emulation of her husband's creation of Ninive, 
she built a new capital in Babylonia. To her the legend 
ascribes all the great works subsequently erected at Babylon 
by Nabuchodonosor, and nearly every great edifice in every 
part of Asia. She is also represented as having conquered 
Egypt and portion of Ethiopia. But from India which she 
attempted to subdue, she was repelled with great loss. 
Learning that her son Ninyas was plotting against her, she 
resigned the crown to him, flew away in the form of a dove, 
and was worshipped as a goddess. 

Ninyas and Sardanapalus.— In the legend, Ninyas is 
the type of a politic and self-indulgent ruler, withdrawn from 
the eyes of his subjects amidst the pleasures of his palace, but 
yet securing their obedience by profound policy. This sys- 
tem is continued under all his successors down to Sardanap- 
alus. Even this degenerate sovereign, when Arbaces, the 
satrap of Media, and Belesys, the chief of the Chaldean 
priests of Babylon, march against him in rebellion, suddenly 
takes the field, and performs prodigies of valor before he is 
defeated. He holds out in Ninive for two years, trusting to 
an oracle, which had assured his safety till the Tigris should 
become his foe. But, when an inundation washes down the 
river walls of the city, perceiving that his hour had come, ha 
collects all his treasures, with his wives and concubines, on a 
vast funeral pile— ascending which, and setting fire to it with 
his own hand, he perishes in the flames. How far these 
legends agree with history, the sequel will show. 

Assyrian Mounds. — The surface of Upper Mesopotamia 
is dotted with mounds, which local traditions connected with 
the ruins of Assyrian cities, but which, till our day, no 
attempt was made to excavate and explore. The uncovering 
of Sargon's palace at Korsabad, commenced in 1842, was the 
beginning of the resurrection of ancient Assyria from her 
buried cities. Since then, excavations have been carried on 
and magnificent bas-reliefs have been brought to light, 
representing battles, sieges, and scenes of the most varied 

*Syria is derived, not from Assur, but from the Phoenician Tsur 
(rock) which became in Greek Tyrus and Syrus — the sh } ss, and t 
being mere dialectic variations. 



128 CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS. 

character. Besides the sculptures, the Assyrian mounds 
have yielded a mass of curious objects,* above all, stone 
or bronze monuments covered with inscriptions, and clay 
tablets or cylinders stamped with writing — the ordinary 
books of the country. 

Cuneiform inscriptions Deciphered. — The monu- 
mental inscriptions and clay books unearthed from the 
Assyrian mounds, are in that writing common to ancient 
Assyria, Media, Semitic Babylonia, and Persia, which 
assumes the wedge (cuneus) as its fundamental element, 
and has in consequence been called cwieiform. The cunei- 
form writing ceased to be employed after the subjugation of 
the west of Asia by the Macedonians ; and, when the inscrip- 
tions first came to light, nobody was found capable of deci- 
phering ihem. But, aided chiefly by the resemblance of the 
cuneiform with the Hebrew characters, the distinguished 
Orientalists, Prof. Grotefend, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Dr. 
Hincks, M. Oppert, and others, have succeeded in reading 
and translating a large number of the inscriptions already 
disinterred. Much, however, still remains to be done, both 
in discovery and in interpretation, before we can be said to 
possess the native and contemporary materials for a complete 
history of Assyria. Especially are the sources of information 
relating to early Assyrian history, very meagre, consisting 
as they do of a few sculptured illustrations, some engraved 
gems, weights, seals, arms, utensils, and various objects of 
furniture. For, while these things are valuable to give an 
insight into the history of Assyrian art, they yet tell us little 
of the growth of the empire. From the time of Sargon 
(b. c. 722), we have more documents,f and these of a most 
interesting nature, as they confirm the Biblical recital, not 
only in its great outlines, but often also in its minutest details. 

*The British Museum and the Paris Louvre contain the chief 
portion of what has hitherto been unearthed. 

|Many are of a private nature, and give accounts of every kind 
of transaction and relation — sales, exchanges, payments, loans, 
leases of houses or fields, agreements of marriage, deeds of adop- 
tion or gifts, wills, legal statements or affidavits, judicial decisions, 
etc. — G. Berlin in The Contemporary Review. 



129 



THEGLATHPHALASAR. 

CHAPTER II. 
The Assyrian Empire. — ? b. c. 1300-606. 



Rise of the Assyrian Power. — Native documents 
furnish some evidence for concluding that, in the 19th cen- 
tury b. c, Assyria was governed by a Babylonian viceroy, 
residing at Kileh-ShergJiat as the capital. How long the 
Chaldean monarchy remained the dominant power in Mes- 
opotamia, is uncertain. Berosus. represents it as overthrown 
by Arabians about 1500 B. C, and its fall appears to have 
coincided with the climax of the Egyptian empire under the 
kings of the 18th dynasty, who are said even to claim Baby- 
lon among their conquests. Ninive also became vassal of 
Egypt. But she first shook off the foreign yoke ; and the 
year 1300 b. c. seems to mark the important epoch of the 
transfer of supremacy from Babylon to Assyria. About the 
end of the 12th century B. c, we find Assyria a conquering 
power under Theglathphalasar 1, who twice invaded Baby- 
lonia, and once took Babylon. But this city, though shorn 
of much of its power, continued to defy the repeated efforts 
of the Assyrian kings and long remained their most powerful 
antagonist. 

Theglathphalasar i (about b. c. 11 30-1 no). — The 
contemporary history of Assyria begins with the annals of 
this prince, about B. c. n 30. They embrace his 'first five 
years, the conquests of which are summed up as follows : 
" Thus fell into my hands 42 countries, from the banks of 
the river Zabto, the banks of the river Euphrates, the 
country of the Khatti (Hittites), and the upper ocean of the 
setting sun (the Mediterranean).* I brought them under one 
government ; I took hostages from them, and I imposed on 
them tributes and offerings." 

* The vague boast of conquests as far as the Mediterranean 
seems to be founded on the defeat of the Khatti who extended to 
the mouth of the Orontes. As with the Egyptians, a victory over 
a distant enemy is often enrolled in terms which might imply a 
conquest of their country. 



136 THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. ?b. c. 1300-606. 

The king's mode of warfare is fully described by himself. 
Rivers are crossed on skins, cities burned, lands laid waste, 
a vast booty in cattle and treasure carried off ; and, as for 
the people — " The ranks of their warriors, fighting in the 
battle, were beaten down as if by the tempest. Their 
carcasses covered the valleys and the tops of the mountains. 
I cut off their heads. Of the battlements of their cities I 
made heaps, like mounds of earth. Their movables, their 
wealth, and their valuables I plundered to a countless amount. 
Six thousand of their common soldiers, who fled before my 
servants and accepted my yoke, I took and gave over to 
the men of my own territory as slaves." 

The king glories equally in his exploits as a hunter. In 
the country of the Hittites, he boasts of having slain four 
wild bulls ; while, in the neighborhood of Haran, he had 
killed ten large wild buffaloes, and taken four alive. The 
lions which he had destroyed in his various journeys, he es- 
timates at 920. All these successes he ascribes to the power- 
ful protection of Nin and Nergal, deities who correspond 
nearly to Hercules and Mars. 

A Gap in Assyrian History. — Between the annals of 
Theglathphalasar I and the next contemporary documents, 
above two centuries intervene, during which interval the 
wars of David and the splendid government of Solomon es- 
tablished a real empire of Israel, and Razon founded the 
Syrian kingdom of Damascus, which maintained a long con- 
flict against Assyria. The weakness and division of Israel, 
after Solomon, turned to the gain, not of Assyria, but of 
Egypt, under Sesac and the 22d dynasty; and the signs 
which appear, of relations between Egypt and Assyria, de- 
note alliance rather than rivalry. All this points to a period 
of depression in the Assyrian empire. 

Calah (now Nimrud) ; its Mound and Palaces. — 
When the darkness begins to disperse, we find ourselves on 
a new and firm basis both of time and place. We have a 
dated list, tolerably complete, of the Assyrian kings from 
909 to 745 B. C The residence of these princes is at Calah 
in the angle formed by the confluence of the Tigris with 
the great Zab, where, now stands the famous mound of Nim- 
rud. In all the royal cities on the Tigris, the king's palace 
stood on the river bank, crowning a mound of earth, which 
was supported and inclosed by massive walls. At Nimrud, 
the mound was raised 40 feet above the level of the plain, 



ASSURISIRPAL AND SALMANASAR HI. 1^1 

and extended nearly one-third of a mile. On this platform, 
4 palaces have already been discovered. Some of these 
edifices have been built upon the ruins of others ; and the 
action of fire is shown in heaps of charcoal and split or cal- 
cined slabs. The plain beneath is strewn with bricks and 
other remnants of the ancient city ofCalah. 

Assurisirpal (b. c. 883-858). — The oldest of the palaces 
discovered at Nimrud, is the work of this monarch. In the 
records found among its ruins, he claims to have penetrated 
farther into Armenia and Kurdistan than any of his prede- 
cessors, and to have gone through Lebanon and the valley 
of the Orontes, to the shore of the Mediterranean, where he 
received the submission of the chief cities of Phoenicia. His 
hunting exploits are mentioned as minutely as his feats of 
war ; and both sets of achievements are illustrated by bas- 
reliefs, wonderful for their artistic execution, their minute de- 
tails, and their living picture of Oriental despotism. The 
king rides down his foes, bends his bow against their battle- 
ments, or receives their abject submission, which he rewards 
with torture and death. " Their men, young and old," he 
says, speaking of a revolted city, " I took prisoners. Of 
some I cut off the feet and hands ; of others I cut off the 
noses, ears, and lips. Of the young men's ears I made a 
heap ; of the old men's heads I built a minaret. The child- 
ren I burned in the flames. The city I destroyed and 
consumed with fire." 

Salmanasar hi (b. c. 858-823). — The monuments and 
inscriptions of this monarch have revealed some interesting 
facts concerning the relations of Assyria with the Syrians 
and Israelites. The most powerful king west of the Eu- 
phrates, at that time, was Benadad II, who reigned at Da- 
mascus. This prince formed a great confederacy with the 
kings both of Israel and Emath* and of the Hittites and the 
Phoenicians, in order to check Assyrian aggrandizement. 
But Salmanasar defeated the united efforts of his opponents. 
In several victorious campaigns, he plundered the Syrian 
cities, and received the tributes of Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus. 
One of his inscriptions mentions, among the allied forces un- 

* Or Hamath, a rich city of the vatyey of the Orontes, already 
famous in the time of Moses, and called by Amos, under Jeroboam 
11, Emath the Great. The kingdom of Emath seems to have com- 
prised the whole basin of the Orontes ; from Sargon's time, it no 
longer appears in history. 



1 32 THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. ?b. c. 1300-606. 

der Benadad, io,oco men and 20 chariots sent by Achab, 
king of Israel. In another we read : "In those days the 
tribute of Tyre and of Sidon and of Jehu I received." The 
name and figure of the same Jehu, king of Israel, appear also 
on a black obelisk, exhumed from the ruins of the palace of 
Salmanasar at Nimrud. 

Jonah Preaches Repentance to the Ninivites. — 
What prince reigned at Ninive, when Jonah by Jehovah's 
order went to preach repentance to the sinful city, is not 
certainly known. A probable opinion refers Jonah's mis- 
sion to the time of Rammannirari in* (b. c. 810-782), grand- 
son to Salmanasar 11, and the first Assyrian monarch who 
actually entered the territory of Israel. By the sacred 
writer Ninive is described ' as a great city of three days'f 
journey,' in which there were 'more than 120,000 persons 
who knew not how to distinguish between their right hand 
and their left, and many beasts.' The number of children 
here referred to, would imply a total population of 600,000. 
The mention of beasts, or cattle, calls to mind the vast extent 
of open space always included in eastern cities ; and the 
ruins of those in Assyria prove how large a part of the 
ground within the walls was occupied by the royal palaces 
and by the temples. 

We learn also from the sacred text what the effect of 
Jonah's preaching was. " The men of Ninive believed in 
God, and they proclaimed a fast, and put on sackcloth from 
the greatest to the least. And the word came to the king 
of Ninive, and he rose up out of his throne, and cast away 
his robe from him, and was clothed with sackcloth, and sat 

* Called by some Assyriologists Biunirari, by others Vnlush, 
Hulinhus, Ivalush, or Yamazalush. There exists much uncertainty 
as to the exact reading of many Assyrian proper names, because 
in the original they are generally written not in syllabic, but in 
ideographic, characters. Happily, the same difficulty does not 
exist in the case of the foreign proper names found in the Assyrian 
inscriptions, because these are always written in syllabic charac- 
ters. We may here remark that, akhough Assyriologists are often 
at variance as to the true rendering and pronunciation of the native 
proper names, they are nevertheless agreed on the general drift 
and meaning of the inscriptions, the substance of which has cer- 
tainly been interpreted rightly. As yet, however, no Assyrian 
translation can be pronounced absolutely correct in all its minutest 
details. 

t Probably to be understood of the time needed to traverse all 
its streets. 



THEGLATHPHALASAR II. 



133 



in ashes. And he caused it to be proclaimed and published 
in Ninive, in the name of the king- and of his princes, say- 
ing * Let neither men nor beasts, oxen nor sheep, taste any- 
thing ; let them not feed nor drink water ; and let men and 
beasts be covered with sackcloths, and cry to the Lord with 
all their strength ; and let them turn every one from his evil 
way. Who can tell if God will turn away from his fierce an- 
ger, and we shall not perish? And God saw their "works 
and had mercy, and did not the evil which he had said he 
would do to them." 

Of the immediate successors of Rammannirari — Sal- 
manasar IV, Assurdanil 11, Assurmirari, b. c. 781-746, 
there needs be mentioned this alone, that the empire shows, 
under the last of these sovereigns, decisive symptoms of de- 
cline. But whether Ninive really fell, as stated by Ctesias, 
under the combined attacks of the Median Arbaces and the 
Babylonian Belesys, is a question to which no native inscrip- 
tion affords any clue. When the darkness clears away, we 
find, reigning at Calah, the founder of a new Assyrian dy- 
nasty, the famous Theglathphalasar 11, the Phul of the book 
of kings. 

Theglathphalasar* ii (b. c. 745-728). — The very na- 
ture of the wars waged by this prince, shows that his acces- 
sion was preceded by a period of weakness and depression. 
After first restoring Assyrian supremacy in Lower Mesopo- 
tamia, he turned his attention to the west (b. c. 743), and 
forced the Syrian princes to pay him tribute. But he had 
no sooner recrossed the Euphrates than they revolted ; and 
several campaigns (b. c. 742-740) were necessary to reduce 
them. Nor was their submission of long continuance. In 
739, we find Hamath once more in open revolt, and now for 
the first time is Judah's name found in Assyrian annals, Az- 
ariah (or Oziah) being mentioned among the allied princes 
whom Theglathphalasar defeated, the following year, in a 
great battle. To the campaign of 738 is referred what we 
read in iv Book of Kings (xv), that Manahem of Israel, a 

* Theglathphalasar, the form adopted by the Septuagint and the 
Vulgate, is found written Tuklatpalasar or Tuklat-abal-asar, in the 
Assyrian inscriptions ; Tig lath-pile ser or Tiglathpilneser, in the 
Hebrew text ; and becomes with Greek writers Thagladanasar, 
Thagaphamasar, Thaglaphelladar, Thaglalhphalnasar, etc. This 
is but a specimen of the metamorphoses to which Assyrian proper 
names are liable. 

12 



i 3 4 THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. ? b. c. 1300-606. 

usurper, gave Phul icoo talents of silver to obtain his aid and 
secure himself on the throne. Two years after this, Mana- 
hem's son and successor, Phakeia, was slain by Phakee, who 
reigned in his stead. This new king of Israel leagued with 
Razin of Damascus against Judah, now governed by the im- 
pious Achaz. Sorely pressed by these powerful neighbors, 
Achaz, much against the earnest advice of the prophet 
Isaiah, 'sent messengers to Theglathphalasar, saying: I am 
thy servant, come up, and save me out of the hand of the 
king of Syria, and out of the hand of the king of Israel, who 
are risen up together against me. And, when he had col- 
lected the silver and gold which could be found in the house 
of the Lord and in the king's treasures, he sent it for a pre- 
sent to the king of the Assyrians. And the latter went up 
against Damascus, and laid it waste, and carried away its in- 
habitants ; but Razin he slew. In like manner came Theg- 
lathphalasar into the land of Israel, and took Aion and 
Abel-beth-maacha, and Janoe, and Kedesh, and Asor, and 
Galaad, and Galilee, and all the land of Nephtali; and 
carried the inhabitants captives into Assyria. Now Osee 
conspired against Phakee, and struck him, and slew him, 
and reigned in his stead.' After these events, about b. c. 
731, king Achaz went to Damascus to meet and pay homage 
to Theglathphalasar. To satisfy him, he stripped the house 
of the Lord, and the house of the kings and of the princes, 
and gave gifts; and yet it availed him nothing.' 

A first revolt of Chaldea and Babylonia which occurred 
during the Syrian wars, and a second which took place the 
last year of Theglathphalasar, were put down by this terrible 
conqueror in his usual style of barbarity and cruelty. The 
short intervals between his military expeditions he employed 
in embellishing Calah, which was his usual and favorite res- 
idence. In consequence of the transportation of Israelites 
and Arameans into Assyria, the Phoenician alphabet of these 
exiles, as well as their language, began to be of frequent use 
among the conquerors themselves in their inscriptions and 
business transactions. 

Salmanasar v (b. C. 727-722) is he, of whom we read 
in IV KingSy xvn : 'Against Osee came up Salmanasar king 
of the Assyrians ; and Osee became his servant, and paid 
him tribute. And when the king of the Assyrians found 
that Osee, endeavoring to rebel, had sent messengers to Sa- 
baco, the king of Egypt, he besieged him, bound him, and 



SALMAN ASAR V, AND SARGON. 1 35 

cast him into prison. And he went through all the land, and 
besieged Samaria three years. And in the ninth year of 
Osee, the king of the Assyrians took Samaria, and carried 
Israel away to Assyria; and he placed some of them among 
their brethren of the former captivity, by the river Gozan 
(the Khabour), and the rest in the far remoter cities of the 
Medes. 

Sargon* (b. c. 722-706) seems to have conducted the 
siege of Samaria, or, at least, the final operations which 
brought about its fall. For, in his annals, this prince claims 
the conquest of this capital as an event of his first year. By 
him Samaria was deprived of the qualified independence 
which it had hitherto been allowed to retain under Assyrian 
supremacy. Instead of a native king, an Assyrian governor 
was placed over it ; and the vacant lands were planted with 
settlers from Upper Babylonia. 

The kingdom of Hamath was next subdued. But, at this 
juncture, Sabaco, king of Egypt, and Hannon, king of 
Gaza, confronted Sargon in the maritime plain of Philistia 
near Raphia (b. c. 719). His decisive victory over them is 
thus referred to by himself in his inscriptions on the walls of 
his superb palace at Korsabad : "They came into my pres- 
ence, I routed them ; I imposed a tribute on Egypt." 
During the next 8 years, Sargon's annals represent him as 
warring in Armenia, Media, and elsewhere. In his eleventh 
year, B. c. 710, took place the expedition against Azotus, 
alluded to by Isaiah. " Its king Yavan, " say the Kosabad 
inscriptions, 'fled at my approach. His city of Ashdod I 
besieged and took, and carried away his gods. His wife, 
his sons and daughters, his treasures and goods, and the 
inhabitants of the country, I transported into Assyria ; and 
them I replaced by captives brought from the east. 

The years 709-708 were spent in a momentous struggle 
with the king of Babylon, Merodach Baladan; and, for a 
short time, Sargon wore the Babylonian crown. He died 
the victim of a conspiracy. 

Sennacherib (b. c. 705-681). — Since Assurisirpal, most 
of the Assorian kings had resided at Calah (Nimrud). 
Sennacherib made Ninive {KoyunjiJz) his usual place of 
residence, and strove to render this royal city a worthy cap- 

*Till recently Sargon and Sahnatiasar v were taken as two dif- 
ferent names of the same individual, nor is it quite clear yet that 
they belong to two different persons. 



136 THE ASSYIAN EMPIRE. ?b. c. 1300-606. 

ital 01 the Assyrian empire. " I have raised again all its 
edifices," he tells us ; "I have reconstructed its old streets, 
and have widened those which were too narrow ; I have 
made the whole town a city shining like the sun." His 
palace there, as if to support this splendid boast, is said to 
be the grandest of all those already exposed to view. On 
its walls have been found inscribed the chief events of his 
reign. From these records we learn, that, in the first year 
of his reign, he was engaged in reconquering Babylonia, 
and several other countries to the east and north — Media, 
Armenia, Albania, and Commagene. He next directed his 
attention to western Asia, that battle-ground where Assyria 
and Egypt were once more to dispute the sovereignty of the 
world. He wished, of course, to reassert Assyria's suprem- 
acy over the territories of Sidon, Ascalon, and Judah, 
which had revolted ; but his chief efforts were to be directed 
against Egypt, then after Assyria the greatest power on 
earth. He first reduced Sidon ; and, on his way to Ascalon, 
sent various detachments throughout Judah, of which inva- 
sion Isaiah says : " The ways are made desolate ; no one 
passeth by the road ; the land mourneth and languisheth ; 
Libanus is confounded and decayed ; and Saron is become 
a desert ; and Basan and Carmel are shaken." This same 
invasion the IV Book of Kings sums up thus : " Sennacherib 
came up against the fortified cities of Judah, and took them." 
But the annals of the conqueror mention the capture of 
46 walled towns, and an infinite number of small places, 
from which were carried off 200,150 captives and innumer- 
able cattle. Then it was that Hezekiah, yielding to the 
pressure of a strong party at Jerusalem, humbled himself be- 
fore the invader, and sent messengers to know his good 
pleasure. An enormous ransom — nearly $160,000,000 — was 
asked and paid. Sennacherib next demanded the surrender 
of Jerusalem, not concealing to the inhabitants his purpose 
of transplanting them. Hezekiah thereupon prepared to 
resist. Then, either to intimidate him into immediate com- 
pliance, or to prevent him from sallying from his capital and 
cooperating with his Egyptian and Ethiopian allies, who 
were now coming Jo his relief, Sennacherib sent up to Jeru- 
salem his tartan, supported by his rabsaris and rabshakeh, 
with a strong detachment of troops. In the meanwhile, as 
Tirhakah was approaching, the Assyrian made a retrograde 
movement to the north, as far as Altafoc opposite to Jeru- 



asarhAddon. 



137 



salem, so as not to be hemmed, in case of defeat, between 
the Jewish and the Egyptian army. Here he gave battle to 
Tirhaka, whom he forced to retreat ; and there now seemed 
to be no means of escape for Hezekiah. Indeed, after the 
victory of Altaku, the rabshakeh's summons to surrender 
was couched in terms of unusual insolence : " Speak to Hez- 
ekiah: thus saith the great king, the king of the Assyrians, 
What is that confidence wherein thou trustest ? Dost thou 
trust in Egypt, a staff of a broken reed, upon which if a man 
lean, it will break and go into his hand and pierce it ? So 
is Pharaoh, king of Egypt, to all who trust in him." Heze- 
kiah trusted in the Lord God of Israel, whose angel slew 
185,000 Assyrians in one night. Thereupon Sennacherib 
returned to Ninive. Nor did he ever after carry his arms 
again to the shores of the Mediterranean. His five next 
campaigns were all in the East, the most important being 
against Babylonia. How the repeated attempts of that 
country to regain its independence were put down, is thus 
described by Sennacherib in his annals : " On the sodden 
battle-field, the arms and armor floated in the blood of the 
enemies, as in a river ; for the war- chariots, bearing down 
men and horses, had crushed their bleeding bodies and 
limbs. I heaped up the bodies of their soldiers as trophies, 
and cut off their extremities. I mutilated those whom I took 
alive, like stalks of straw, and for punishment I cut off their 
hands." 

Twenty years after the catastrophe in Palestine, as this 
terrible monarch ' was worshipping in the temple of Nesroch 
his god, Adrameleck and Sarasa his sons slew him with the 
sword ; and they fled into the land of the Armenians : and 
Asarhaddon, another of his children, reigned in his stead.' 

Asarhaddon (b. c. 68 1-668) is the only king of Assyria 
that ruled over Babylon during his whole reign. This au- 
thority over united Mesopotamia left him at liberty to recover 
the western provinces. After spending 8 years in reconquer- 
ing Phoenicia, Syria, Palestine, and Philistia, Asarhaddon 
successfully invaded Egypt, as has already been related in the 
history of that country. On several of his monuments he 
assumes the proud title of ' ' King of Egypt and Ethiopia — 
King of the kings of Egypt, and conqueror of Ethiopia." 
As a builder, Asarhaddon rivaled his father and grand -fa- 
ther : 3 palaces and more than 30 temples were reared by 
him. 



138 THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. ?b. c. 1300-60*. 

The Samaritan People. — The colonies planted by 
Sargon in the territory of Samaria, had not prospered ; and 
wild beasts had so multiplied, in their desolate lands, as to 
attack the people themselves. Asarhaddon strengthened 
the population with captives taken in his eastern wars — Chal- 
deans, Susianians, Elamites, and others. Like their prede- 
cessors, these new colonists brought with them the worship 
of their respective lands, to which they superadded a super- 
stitious service of Jehovah. This mixture of races formed 
that Samaritan people — so hostile to, and hated by the re- 
stored Jews. 

Assurbanipal (b. c. 668-626) was one of the greatest 
conquerors and most magnificent monarchs of the whole As- 
syrian empire ; and he surpassed all his predecessors in the 
true glory of systematic care for the literature of his country. 
In his palace at Ninive (Koyunjik) he established a library, 
wherein was collected all the Assyrian learning— secular and 
sacred ; and the key to the difficulties which even the natives 
found in their own language and writing, was provided in 
an elaborate series of grammatical works. 

Bart of his reign was spent by Assurbanipal in waging war 
in Egypt. Tirhakah, upon the death of Asarhaddon, once 
more enthroned himself at Memphis. But his triumph was 
of short duration. Assurbanipal, calling out his whole force, 
marched into Egypt, drove back the Ethiopian into his own 
country, and took Thebes with a great slaughter. Having 
provided, as he thought, for the security of his conquest, 
he returned to Ninive laden with splendid spoils. ' Immedi- 
ately after his departure, however, the vassal kings called 
back Tirhakah, who reentered Thebes, and was preparing to 
march upon Memphis, when the approach* of an Assyrian 
force warned him to withdraw to Nepata. Here he soon 
died, and was succeeded on the throne by Rutamen or Ur- 
damanu, his step-son. This prince reoccupied Thebes and 
M emphis, and cleared Egypt of the Assyrians. These events 
recalled Assurbanipal into that unhappy country. The 
Ethiopians were defeated. Thebes, the No Amnion of the 
prophet Nahum, was again taken, and suffered far more than 
before. The Assyrians 'sacked it to its foundations. They 
carried into captivity male and female, great and small ; they 
brought safe to Nin'.ve spoils not to be computed by the 
accountants' (about B. c. 664). 

After this, the Assyrians appear to have left Egypt to her 



HOLOFfeRNES. I39 

native kings, under a vassalage which the rapid decline of 
the Ninivite empire soon rendered only nominal. Then be- 
gan the new era of Egyptian prosperity under the Sai'te 
kings. 

Campaigns of Holofernes.* — Whilst Assurbanipal 
was making war on Ahseri, king of the Mismians, and on 
Birizhari, a Median chief, a younger brother of his, Saulmu- 
gina, who was governor of Babylon, and wished to make 
himself independent, secretly instigated the western tributa- 
ries of Assyria to revolt. On receiving the news of their 
defection, Assurbanipal summoned the rebels to return to 
their allegiance. But 'they all with one mind dismissed his 
envoys without honor. Then king Assurbanipal sware, by 
his throne and kingdom, that he would revenge himself of 
all those countries ; and, calling his general Holofernes, he 
ordered him to go against all the kingdoms of the west, 
which had despised his commandments.' The warlike 
preparations were commensurate with the difficulties of the 
expedition. At the head of 1 20,000 foot and 1 2, coo mounted 
archers abundantly provided with everything requisite, 
Holofernes overran Cappadocia, Pisidia, and Lydia, pillaged 
Tarsus, and inflicted all sorts of calamities on the nomad 
Arabs dwelling between Cilicia and the Euphrates. But, 
whilst the Assyrian troops were thus engaged at a distance, 
Saulmugina, who had waited his opportunity, threw off the 
mask; and Holofernes hastened back across the Euphrates 
to cooperate in the reduction of the stately cities of Lower 
Mesopotamia — Babylon, Sippara, Borsippa, and Cutha. 
Their revolt being suppressed, Holofernes resumed opera- 
tions, at the beginning of his third campaign, precisely 
where he had ended the first — on the borders of Cilicia. 'He 
stripped the children of Midian of all their riches, and all 
who resisted he slew with the sword. He next went down 
into the plains of Damascus, in the days of the harvest, and 
he set all the corn on fire, and he caused all the trees and 
vineyards to be cut down.' Frightened by such a mode of 

*The following account is drawn in part from the annals of 
Assurbanipal, but chiefly from the Book of Judith. The original 
of this sacred book has not come down to us ; and several proper 
names, in the translations which we possess, are thought to have 
been altered by copyists. In it, Assurbanipal is called Nabuchodon- 
osor. Saoduschinus and Sardanapalus are other names of the same 
prince. 



I4d THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Chap. II. 

warfare, the Syrians, Phoenicians, and Philistines, hastened to 
tender their submission. 'All our cities and our possessions 
are in thy sight : let all we have be subject to thy law ; both 
we and our children are thy sen-ants. Come to us as a 
peaceable lord, and use our service as it shall please thee. 
Then Holofernes came down from the mountains with horse- 
men in great power ; and from all the cities he took auxiliaries, 
valiant men and chosen for war. And so great a fear lay 
upon all those provinces, that the inhabitants of all the cities — 
both princes and -nobles as well as the people, went out to 
meet him at his coming', and received him with garlands, and 
lights, and dances, and timbrels, and flutes. And though they 
did these things, they could not for all that mitigate the fierce- 
ness of his heart. For he both destroyed their cities and 
cut down their groves, and destroyed their gods, command- 
ing' them to look upon his master as their only god. And 
when he had come into the land of Gabaa. he stayed there 
thirty days.' waiting for all his troops to assemble, before he 
would penetrate into Egypt, and, like the other revolted 
countries force it into submission. 

Tudith and Holofernes. — An unforeseen obstacle 
thwarted the projects of Holofernes. ' The children of Israel, 
fearing lest he should do the same to Jerusalem and to the 
temple of the Lord, that he had done to other cities and 
their temples, compassed the towns with wails, gathered 
provisions, and occupied the mountain-passes leading to Jeru- 
salem. And all die people cried to the Lord with great 
earnestness, and they humbled their souls in tastings and 
prayers. And the priests put on hair-cloths, and they caused 
the little children to lie prostrate before the temple oi the 
Lord ; and the high-priest Eliaehim went about all Israel. 
and spake to them, saying: Know ye that the Lord will 
hear your prayers, if ye persevere in this work which ye 
have begam. So they continued, begging God with all their 
heart, that He would visit His people Israel. And when it 
was told Holofernes that the children of Israel were prepar- 
ing to resist, and had shut up the ways of the mountains, he 
was transported with exceeding great fury, and he gave 
orders to his army to go up against Bethulia. Xow there 
were in his troops 120,000 footmen, and two-and-twenty 
thousand horsemen, besides those recruits whom he had 
forced into his ranks through his march across the provinces 
and cities.' Against this multitude, the people of Bethulia 



JUDITH. 141 

made a brave resistance ; but, at the end of 20 days, they 
began to suffer from thirst to such a degree, that their com- 
mander, to appease their clamors, promised to surrender at 
the expiration of four days, should no aid come from the 
Lord. But divine aid came through Judith. Strengthened 
from on high, this heroic woman, with permission of the 
elders, went into the camp of the Assyrians, and asked to be 
brought to the tent of Holofernes. 'And when she was come 
into his presence, forthwith Holofernes was captivated ; for 
she was exceedingly beautiful. And he ordered that she 
should go in where his treasures were laid up, and bade her 
tarry there, commanding his chamberlains that she might 
go out and in, to adore her God as she pleased, for three 
days. And on the fourth day, when he made a supper for 
his servants, Judith was called in, and Holofernes was made 
merry on her occasion, and drank very much wine. And, 
while he lay on his bed fast asleep, being exceedingly drunk, 
Judith cut off his head, and, putting it in her wallet, hastened 
back with it to Bethulia. As the watchmen upon the walls 
heard her voice, they called the ancients of the city ; and all 
ran to meet her from the least to the greatest, and lighting up 
lights, they all gathered round about her. Then she brought 
forth the head of Holofernes out of her wallet, and showed it 
to them, saying : Behold the head of the general of the 
army of the Assyrians, whom the Lord our God slew by the 
hand of a woman. Hear me, my brethren : hang ye up 
this head upon our walls. And, as soon as the sun shall 
rise, let every man take his arms, and rush ye out, as mak- 
ing an assault- And accordingly) at the break of day, after 
hanging the head of Holofernes upon the walls, they went 
out with a great noise and shouting. Now, when the 
Assyrians saw this, and understood that Holofernes was 
beheaded, courage and counsel fled from them, and, being 
seized with trembling and fear, they thought only .to save 
themselves by flight ; so that no one spake to his neighbor, 
but hanging down the head, leaving all things behind, they 
made haste to escape from the Hebrews. And 20 days 
were scarce sufficient for the people of Israel to gather 
up the spoils of the Assyrians.' These events occurred 
during the captivity of king Manasses. In remembrance 
of their miraculous deliverance, an annual festival was insti- 
tuted, and long continued to be celebrated by the Jewish 
people. 



I4 2 THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. II. 

The Fall of Ninive (b. c. ?6o6*). — We know with cer- 
tainty neither the exact date, nor the peculiar circumstances, 
of the fall of Ninive. But the causes which brought about 
the ruin of the Assyrian monarchy, are not far to seek. As 
has been seen throughout the history of Assyria, the con- 
quered tribes and kingdoms of the west could only be kept 
in subjection by fear ; and, nearer the seat of empire, Baby- 
lon generally maintained a certain independence. The Ara- 
means also on the middle Euphrates, and the mountain- 
eers of Armenia and Zagros, were ever ready to renew the 
contest for freedom. Finally, beyond the range of Zagros, 
the Medes had now become strong enough not only to 
shake off the yoke, but in turn to become aggressors. Add 
to these permanent causes of weakness, a terrible invasion 
of Scythians, which desolated Assyria soon after the death 
of Assurbanipal, and is supposed to have materially hastened 
the downfall of the monarchy. The following is the most 
probable account of that catastrophe. 

Assuredilili, or Saracus, the son and successor of Assur- 
banipal, had rewarded the services of his general Nabopo- 
lassar by making him governor of Babylon, with the title of 
king. A wise rule of 15 years so strengthened the governor's 
power, that he aspired to independence. The better to 
gain this object, Nabopolassar secretly invited Nechao and 
the Mede Cyaxares to unite with him in a combined attack 
on Assyria. They assented, and the confederates made 
suitable preparations for the momentous enterprise. In pur- 
suance of the preconcerted plan, Nechao seized Carchemish,f 
and once more annexed to Egypt all the territories west 
of the Euphrates. Meanwhile, Nabopolassar and Cyaxares 
invested Ninive. For two years this strong place withstood 
all their efforts. But an inundation of the Tigris washed 
away a considerable portion of the wal's, and the king in 
despair buried himself, with his wives and treasures, under 
the smoking ruins of his palace and city. Thus were the 
prophecies of Nahum and Sophoniah accomplished. ' Woe 

* By most chronologers 625 is the date assigned to the fall of 
Ninive ; but St. Jerome and Eusebius, whom we have preferred to 
follow, give 606. 

| This city had long been the capital of the Arameans, or of the 
great Hittite empire. Situated opposite the most frequented fords 
of the Euphrates, it was still the chief emporium of commerce be- 
tween western Asia and Assyria. 



B. C. 604-561. NABUCHODONOSOR. 



143 



to thee, O city of blood, all full of lies and violence, which 
never ceased to carry on rapine. Jehovah passeth as a flood ; 
he destroyeth the very place where it stood. The gates of 
the river are opened, and the palace is thrown down to the 
ground. Ninive is laid waste.' ' The Lord will stretch out 
his hand, and will destroy Assyria. He will make Ninive 
the beautiful city, a wilderness ; and flocks shall lie down 
in the midst thereof. How is she become a desert, a place 
for beasts to lie down in !' 



CHAPTER III. 

The Babylonian Empire — b. c. 606-538. 

Nabopolassar (b. C. 606-604). — 0n the fall of Ninive, 
Nabopolassar obtained Susiana and the valley of the Eu- 
phrates, as his share of the spoils. Not satisfied with this, 
he sent his son Nabuchodonosor across the Euphrates (b. c. 
605), to dislodge the Egyptians from Carchemish. The 
efforts of the young prince were crowned with success. 
Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine, yielded to Babylonian as- 
cendency; and Nabuchodonosor had already reached the 
frontiers of Egypt, when the death of his father recalled 
him to Babylon to assume the reins of government. 

Nabuchodonosor (b. c. 604-561). — Few princes, ancient 
or modern, fill so grand a place in our minds and imagina- 
tion as Nabuchodonosor — the instrument of Providence for 
the destruction of Jerusalem. The very year of his accession, 
Jeremiah 'spake to all the people of Judah, saying: Thus 
saith Jehovah Sabaoth: Because ye have not heard my 
words, behold, I will collect all the tribes of the north under 
Nabuchodonosor the king of Babylon, my servant, and I will 
bring them against this land, and against the inhabitants 
thereof, and against all the nations that are around about it. 
And all this land shall be a desolation, and all these nations 
shall serve the king of Babylon 70 years.' This prophecy 
was literally accomplished. The revolt of Joachim first 
brought upon Judah swarms of Chaldeans, Syrians, Ammon- 
ites, and Moabites, who devastated the country full four 



144 



THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. III. 



years. Then Nabuchodonosor himself came in person 
against Jeconiah, who was carried away captive with his 
grandees, and the best part of the population. Finally, the 
revolt of Sedekiah led to the utter ruin of the nation. 

Judah's neighbors had also much to suffer from the terri- 
ble Babylonian conqueror. He reduced Tyre after a pro- 
longed siege ; he gave up to fire and sword the countries of 
the Moabites and Idumeans ; he utterly desolated Egypt from 
Migdol to Syene, and kept it in subjection as 'the basest of 
kingdoms.' But, remarkable as were his military exploits, 
they dwindle into insignificance, when compared to the 
great works with which he embellished his capital and native 
kingdom of Babylonia. 

Great Works of Nabuchodonosor. — Besides the 
double rampart of Babylon, the temple of Belus, and the 
great palace with the hanging gardens — a description of 
which is given below, Nabuchodonosor dug a huge reservoir 
near Sippara, said to have been 140 miles in circumference 
and 180 feet deep, besides another, also of vast dimensions, 
in Babylon itself; built quays and breakwaters along the 
shores of the Persian gulf, and founded near by the city of 
Diridotis ; raised an extensive embankment along the course 
of the Tigris, in the vicinity of Bagdad; constructed a num- 
ber of canals, among them the Nahr Malcha (royal river), 
a broad and deep channel which connects the Euphrates 
with the Tigris ; in fine, erected the Birs-i-Nimrud> or great 
temple of Nebo, at Borsippa, with many other shrines and 
public buildings throughout the entire country. No fewer 
than 100 sites in the neighborhood of the capital give evi- 
dence, by inscribed bricks bearing his legend, of his marvel- 
lous activity and energy. 

Walls and Streets of Babylon. — Nabopolassar had 
begun to enlarge and embellish his capital. Nabuchodono- 
sor took up his father's scheme, and made Babylon the first 
city of the ancient world. He completed the new fortifica- 
tions commenced by Nabopolassar, which consisted of two 
walls of enclosure with parallel sides forming two perfect 
squares, and of extraordinary dimensions as to extent, height, 
and width. Herodotus, an eye-witness, makes the entire 
circuit of the outer wall 56 miles long, with a height of 335 feet, 
and a breadth of 55 feet. Other historians have handed 
down lower figures. But even their reduced estimate still 
leaves the outer rampart of Babylon a prodigy of strength, 



B. C. 604-561. NABUCHODONOSOR. jk 

of such height and thickness as rendered scaling and mining 
equally hopeless. Nor has any one reduced the outer en- 
closure to less than 40 miles in circumference. Not one-half, 
however, of this vast area, seems ever to have been built up. 
There was a clear space left all around, inside of the wall ; 
and, where the houses began, they were far from being con- 
tiguous. Gardens, orchards, even fields, were interspersed 
among the buildings ; and it was supposed that the inhabi- 
tants, in case of necessity, might be able to raise within the 
inclosure sufficient corn for their subsistence. 

The whole fortified area, or district, was laid out in streets 
or roads, cutting one another at right angles. Both the 
inner and the outer wall were pierced with 100 gates — 25 in 
each side, which corresponded to as many streets, the whole 
city being thus divided into 625 square blocks. The houses 
were generally three or four stories high. Many had vaulted 
roofs uncovered with any tiling, the dryness of the climate 
rendering such a protection unnecessary. 

The Temple of Bel. — This great temple was a huge 
solid mass of brickwork, built in stages, square above square, 
thus forming a sort of pyramid, at the top of which was 
the shrine of the god. The basement platform of this tem- 
ple, or tower, was somewhat more than 200 yards each way. 
The number of stages were eight. The ascent was on the 
outside. It consisted either of steps, or of an inclined plane, 
which wound round the building, and in this way conducted 
to the summit. 

The shrine which crowned the edifice, was large and rich. 
Ere the Persians stripped it of its treasures, it contained the 
colossal images in gold of Bel, Beltis, and Rhea (or Ishtar) ; 
and, in front of these statutes, were two lions of gold, two 
huge serpents of silver, and a golden table, 40 feet long and 
15 broad, upon which stood two large silver drinking cups. 
The shrine also possessed two enormous censers, and three 
golden bowls, one for each of the three deities. At the base 
of the tower was a chapel, which contained an image of Bel 
made of gold, sitting on a golden stand, with a table of the 
same precious metal in front.* 

The Great Palace and Hanging Gardens.-— The 
great palace, erected by Nabuchodonosor, was a building of 
still larger dimensions than the temple of Bel. It was situated 

* All these objects represented a value of about $100,000,000, 

13 



146 THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. III. 

within a triple enclosure, the outermost of which was nearly 
seven miles in circumference. This outer wall was built en- 
tirely of plain baked brick. The middle and inner walls 
were of the same material, but fronted with enamelled 
bricks representing hunting scenes. The figures were larger 
than life, and consisted chiefly of a great variety of animal 
forms. Of the character of the apartments, nothing has been 
handed down to us. The palace had three gates, two of 
which were of bronze, and had to be opened and shut by 
machinery. 

The main glory of the palace was its pleasure-ground— 
the hanging gardens. This extraordinary construction was 
a square, each side of which measured 400 feet. It was sup- 
ported upon several tiers of open arches, built over one an- 
other, and sustaining at each stage a solid platform, from 
which the piers of the next tier of arches rose. The build- 
ing rose to the height of at least 75 feet, and was covered 
at the top with a great mass of earth, in which there grew 
not merely flowers and shrubs, but even trees of the largest 
size. Water was supplied from the Euphrates probably 
by means of buckets and pulleys; though some think it 
was raised by a screw working on the principle of Archi- 
medes. The ascent to the garden was by steps. On the 
way up, among the arches which sustained the building, 
were stately apartments, which must have been pleasant from 
their coolness. 

Chastisement, Penance, and Death of Nabuch- 
odonosor. — When Nabuchodonosor had completed the 
embellishment of his capital, as he was one day contemplating 
its magnificence, he exclaimed in his pride : "Is not this 
the great Babylon which I have built to be the seat of the 
kingdom, by the strength of my power, and in the glory of 
my excellence ? And while the word was yet in the king's 
mouth, a voice came down from heaven : To thee, O king 
Nabuchodonosor, it is said : Thy kingdom shall pass from 
thee ; and they shall cast thee out from among men, and thy 
dwelling shall be with the beasts of the field ; thou shalt eat 
grass like an ox ; and seven times* shall pass over thee, till 
thou know that the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of 
men, and giveth it to whomsoever he will. The same hour 

*They are commonly interpreted seven years, though some un- 
derstand but seven months. 



B. C. 604-561. NABUCHODONOSOR. 1 47 

the word was fulfilled upon Nabuchodonosor ;' and he was 
driven from men, and did eat grass as oxen, and his body 
was wet with the dew of heaven, till his hairs were grown 
like eagles' feathers, and his nails like birds' claws."* 

During this period of madness, we may assume that Na- 
buchodonosor was allowed the range of the private gardens 
of his palace, and that his condition was concealed from his 
subjects. But he himself formally proclaimed it to them on 
his recovery, to teach the lesson he had learned, "that all the 
inhabitants of the earth are reputed as nothing before the 
Most High. For He doeth according to His will, and there 
is none that can resist His hand, and say to him : Why hast 
thou done it ? Therefore, I, Nabuchodonosor, do now praise 
and magnify and glorify the King of heaven; because ail his 
works are truth, and His ways judgment ; and them that 
walk in pride He is able to abase." 

Nabuchodonosor himself informs us, that, after his sense 
returned to him and he was restored to his kingdom, 'greater 
majesty was added unto him.' How long this greater bright- 
ness of his closing days lasted, is not known. In B. C. 561, 
this illustrious prince fell ill, and departed this life, after a 
reign of just 42 years. The real greatness of the Babylonian 
empire ended, as it had begun, with Nabuchodonosor. 

Decline of the Babylonian Empire. — None of the 
successors of Nabuchodonosor inherited his genius, or per- 
formed any illustrious achievement. From his death we may 
date the decline of the empire. After being an instrument 
in the hands of God to chastise the infidelities of his people, 
the Babylonians themselves were about to be punished for 
their cruelty, their pride, and their domineering spirit. The 
people destined to humble Babylon — the Medes and Persians, 
were now at their climax. Nor was there any adequate power 
within to resist the well-organized military strength of the 
Aryan tribes. The chief force of Babylon consisted in the 
fiery cavalry of Irak Araby and Lower Chaldea, described 
by the prophet as ' terrible and dreadful, swifter than leop- 
ards, and sharper than evening wolves' — an admirable instru- 
ment of rapid conquest, but not of lasting dominion. 

*Dan. iv. 27-30. The disease here described is the strange and 
degrading form of madness called lycanthropy (the were-wolf). 
The patient, fancying himself a beast, rejects clothing and ordinary 
food, and even the shelter of a roof ; disuses articulate speech, 
and sometimes persists in going on all fours. 



148 THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. III. 

The downfall of Babylon was hastened by court intrigues 
and dynastic revolutions. The son of Nabuchodonosor, Evil- 
Merodach, after a reign of two years, fell the victim of a con- 
spiracy. One interesting fact is recorded of him in Scripture. 
He released Joakin, the captive king of Judah, from his 37 
years' imprisonment, and gave him a place at his own table 
above all the other kings who were detained at Babylon. 

Neriglissar, who seized the sceptre, was the son-in-law of 
Nabuchodonosor. He reigned only three years. His son 
and successor Laborosoarchod, a mere boy, was not suffered 
to retain his nominal sovereignty more than nine months. 
On the plea that he gave signs of a vicious disposition, the 
chiefs of the Chaldean order murdered him, and conferred 
the crown on one of their number, Nabonadius. 

Nabonadius, Nitocris, and Baltassar (b. c. 555-538). 
— Nabonadius took to wife a daughter of Nabuchodonosor, 
probably Nitocris, born of an Egyptian mother, and the 
same that had been married to Neriglissar. Nitocris bore to 
Nabonadius a son, Baltassar, who was associated with his 
father, and was intrusted with the defence of the capital in the 
final struggle of the Babylonians against Cyrus. Alarmed 
at the growing power of Cyrus, who had just possessed him- 
self of the Median sceptre, Nabonadius listened to the sug- 
gestion of Crcesus, king of Lydia, urging an alliance offen- 
sive and defensive against the Persians. But, unable to send 
timely succor to his Lydian ally, the Babylonian monarch 
contented himself with strengthening the fortifications of his 
capital. Fearing that the Euphrates, which traversed the 
city diagonally, might facilitate the entrance of bold inva- 
ders, he lined its banks with quays of brick laid in bitumen 
and two strong walls of the same material. In each of these 
walls were 25 brazen gates, corresponding to the number of 
streets ; and, outside of each gate, a slope led to the water's 
edge, where boats were kept to convey passengers from side 
to side. There was but one bridge in Babylon ; it consisted 
of a series of stone piers, with movable platforms stretching 
from one pier to another. At night, the platforms were 
withdrawn, and the brazen gates were shut. Then no com- 
munication was possible between the two portions of the 
city, unless we admit as a reality the existence of the arched 
tunnel 1 5 feet wide and 1 1 feet high, dug under the bed of 
the river, which Diodorus and Philostratus wrote of, but only 
after Babylon was completely ruined. 



B. C. 538. FALL OF BABYLON. l^ig 

Taking of Babylon by Cyrus (b. c. 538). —Though 
Cyrus dethroned Croesus in b. c. 554, it was not till several 
years later (b. C. 547) that he crossed the Tigris, and direct- 
ly menaced Nabonadius. At the approach of the invader, 
Nabonadius advanced to meet him, but was defeated, and 
withdrew to Lower Babylonia. Thither the Persian as yet 
durst not follow; he employed the next seven years in 
isolating his enemy, conquering some of his provinces, and 
fomenting rebellions in others. Thus we learn from a clay- 
book lately disinterred that, in 539, all the western tributaries 
of Babylon and the country of Accad itself were in open re- 
volt. At this juncture, Cyrus reappeared in Mesopotamia, 
and penetrated to Sippara where Nabonadius lay. This 
prince, abandoning Sippara to the enemy, threw himself into 
the fortress of Borsippa, the defence of Babylon being left 
to Baltassar, aided by the counsels of the queen - mother. 
That young Baltassar behaved with spirit may be inferred 
from the conduct of Cyrus, who, despairing to take the place 
by force, had recourse to stratagem. With the bulk of his 
army he removed to some distance above the city ; and by 
means of canals and reservoirs took measures to divert the 
waters of the Euphrates, so as to make the river fordable 
within Babylon itself. Unsuspecting of the snare, Baltassar 
and a thousand of his nobles assembled at a great banquet ; 
and the prince, inflamed with wine and flattery, ordered the 
gold and silver vessels taken by Nabuchodonosor from the 
temple of Jerusalem, to be brought, that he and his wives 
and concubines and courtiers might drink in them to the 
praise of their gods. And as they were drinking, and prais- 
ing their gods of gold and silver, of brass and iron, of 
wood and stone, a hand was seen writing upon the wall in 
the full light of the candelabra. At the sight, ' the king's 
countenance changed ; and his thoughts troubled him ; and 
the joints of his loins were loosed ; and his knees smote one 
against the other.' Then he called for his Chaldean sooth- 
sayers and astrologers, proclaiming that the man who could 
read the writing should be invested with the insignia of roy- 
alty, and made third ruler in the kingdom. But the king's 
wise men confessed their inability to read the unknown char- 
acters. Thereupon the queen-mother, coming into the ban- 
queting-room, said : "O king, there is a man in thy kingdom 
in whom knowledge and wisdom were found in the days of 
thy father Nabuchodonosor, who appointed him prince of 



150 



THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. III. 



the wise men, enchanters, Chaldeans, and soothsayers ; it is 
Daniel: let him be called for, and he will tell the inter- 
pretation." Then Daniel was brought in before the king, 
who repeated his offers of reward. "Thy rewards be to thy- 
self," answered Daniel, "and the gifts of thy house give to 
another ; but the writing I will read to thee, O king, and show 
thee the interpretation thereof. The inscription reads thus : 
Mane, Thekel, Phares, words which signify : The days of 
thy kingdom are numbered and finished ; thou art weighed 
in the balance and found wanting ; thy kingdom is divided, 
and given to the Medes and Persians." That same night, 
the terrible prediction was fulfilled. Imitating the court, the 
people and army were sunk in revelry. No notice was taken 
of the gradual sinking of the water in the river-bed ; the 
river-walls were left unmanned, and the river-gates unlocked. 
The Persians, stationed by Cyrus at the two points where the 
Euphrates entered and left the walls, were thus able to ad- 
vance from both extremities, unperceived. They seized the 
gateways, penetrated into the town ; and in the darkness and 
confusion of the night a terrible massacre ensued : Baltassar 
himself was slain. His father Nabonadius, who surrendered 
at Borsippa, was admitted to mercy, and assigned an abode 
in Carmania. 

Subsequent Fate of Babylon. — From this time, Baby- 
lon became the second capital of the Persian empire, and 
the ordinary royal residence in winter. Though it suffered 
severely in consequence of its revolts under Darius and 
Xerxes, it retained its greatness to the time of Alexander, 
who destined it for his eastern seat of empire. The transfer 
of its population to Seleucia, on the Tigris, by the Greek 
kings of Syria, began that long decay which has left "Baby- 
lon, the glory of kingdoms, the beauty of the Chaldees' ex- 
cellency, as when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorra." Oi 
the mighty city which once lorded it over the earth, hardly 
any traces remain. But the entire region where it stood, is 
covered with shapeless heaps of rubbish, and fragments of 
glass, marble, pottery, and inscribed bricks, which attest the 
presence of ancient habitations. — The fall of Babylon marks 
the epoch when the empire of the east was wrested from the 
Semitic race, till they recovered it, about 12 centuries later, 
by the Mahometan conquest. 



CK -. . . N 

CHAFFER 

The Civilization > C 1AUDKA, I -- 

Aktiquiti of rax Chaldean C;y-.l:.-at:ox — 
Chaldean civilization is by the Gree es 
a par with the Egyptian, and deserve.: sc lO 

is in Egvpt, the ante ; - 

A: the vc. . . :\ of history, me primitive C . 3 

- of the Babylonians .■ . £usase 

builders a id ast lome - a id it -is chiefly ft a then 
not only the Assyrians I - ind Persians .■.:.•: G 
► derived the elements . leai ring, — f • . lOsrefi 
:; the c tationof the Chaldc ans, Bah is and Lss 

ians, wh;ch are sc 1 through the tg chapters 

we shall here recapitulate . suppleme • 

c :ed remarks on their astronomical and archite c aral sc : e 
their rehgion and worship. 

Astronomical Sc ; :/ u axe the C • - •■ - — 
In astronomical scier the ChalcLv. as a ght to h 

surpassed all the other nations of ant cannon 

consent they are set down, in ancient wri:. 5 as : he tilth. 5 
- Miomy. At a very early date, the its _. shed ti- 
the fixed stars i 5 planets 3 :.; I at be -e — V 1 
cury, Venus, Mars Jup and Saturn. Th .. 

»ue of the fixed Ed - and arranged the whole h ; ens 
into a c - - groups 

globes naps 

I .. cakn : ; at aast those / . :he 

moon for many ages be . length 

the solai bat of the - 

.:. They found out the relative - nth 

— of the sun, moon, and planets. The four sate V - Ju- 
piter were observed by them, and pre so the s 
satellites of Saturn. They used sun 
or water-clock, to measure tune duriri g ieas 
instrument employed to calculate 
ve the horizon; and sundry 
nature of the teles Unfortunately th 

".ny was too frequently pros supers 

■ adicial astrok g 



I 5 2 THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. IV. 

Babylonian Temples: Ziggurats and Shrines. — 
Throughout their whole existence as a nation, the Chaldeans 
and Babylonians enjoyed a high degree of eminence in archi- 
tecture. One of their first rulers, Urukh, stands prominent 
in history as a builder ; and it was upon buildings that the 
great king of the later empire, Nabuchodonosor, specially 
prided himself. In Babylonia, as in Egypt, the chief efforts 
of architecture seem to have culminated in the temple. 

The Babylonian temple, which, like the Assyrian palace, 
always stood upon an artificial mound, or platform, consisted 
of two distinct parts, the ziggurat or body of the edifice, and 
the crowning shrine of the deity to which the edifice was 
specially dedicated. The ziggurat, was a solid mass of 
sun-dried brick, inclosed in a casing of burned brick, and 
consisting of from two to seven stages, each higher stage 
being smaller than that immediately under it. Both the 
base and the stages were oblong; their corners, not the 
sides, habitually looked to the four quarters of the heavens ; 
nor was each stage placed centrally over the one below. 
The ascent to the summit, which always was on the outside, 
seems to have been by means of steps, and sometimes of an 
inclined plane. In the temple of Nebo at Borsippa, each of 
the seven stages was sacred to one of the ' seven lights' — 
Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon, in the 
order of the system believed in till the time of Copernicus ; 
and each was distinguished by the appropriate color of the 
planet — black, orange, red, gold, yellow, blue, and silver. 

At the summit of the temple-tower was the shrine, of 
greater or less size, containing altars and images. Its orna- 
mentation was rare and costly. At the base of the tower, or 
at any rate somewhere within the walled inclosure of the 
Babylonian temple, was a second shrine for the greater con- 
venience of worshippers, and near by stood, in the open air, 
various altars on which were sacrificed different kinds of 
victims. Occasionally these altars, like the statues, tables, 
censers, and cups, were of solid gold. 

The Pantheon, Priesthood, and Worship of Baby- 
lonia and Assyria. — The chief objects of Babylonian wor- 
ship were Bel, Merodach, and Nebo. At the head of the 
Assyrian Pantheon stood the great god Assur, a thoroughly 
national deity, whose place is ^always first in invocations. 
This god was probably no other than the progenitor of the 
race, the son of Sem, deified. After Assur, we may mention, 



ASSYRIAN PALACES. 1 53 

Sin (the moon), Shamus (the sun), Nergal the god of war, 
Kin the god of hunting, Vul the wielder of the thunderbolt, 
and the deities of the Babylonians to whom the Assyrians 
also paid worship. Among the former people, the priests 
seem to have been both more numerous and more in esteem. 
A pompous ceremonial, a fondness for processional display, 
and the use of magnificent vestments, characterized the 
worship of both nations. At Babylon certainly, and prob- 
ably also at Ninive, music and singing were marked features 
of religious ceremonies. 

Assyrian Palaces. — While the Assyrians, content with 
the elements of learning which they had derived from Baby- 
lonia, never strove to surpass their instructors in literature 
and science, they carried the perfection of architecture and 
sculpture much farther than their southern neighbors in those 
truly royal palaces, which, from the time of Assurisirpal 
(b. c. 883-858), sovereign after sovereign erected at Nimrud 
(Calah), Koyunjik (Ninive), and Korsabad (Beth-Sargina). 
These grand structures, some of them 360 feet long by 300 
broad, were raised upon a lofty artificial platform, constructed 
and covered with a pavement of bricks. They had two or 
three facades, on each of which elaborate gateways, flanked 
with winged human-headed bulls and lions in yellow lime- 
stone, gave access to the interior of the palace. The prin- 
cipal halls, five or more in number, were lined, to the height 
of some ten feet, with sculptured slabs in alabaster, the space 
above being decorated with enamelled bricks or paintings in 
fresco. Some palaces even, like that of Sargon at Korsa- 
bad, were covered with sculptures, both internally and ex- 
ternally, generally in two lines one over the other, above 
which were enamelled bricks arranged in elegant and taste- 
ful patterns. Most varied are the scenes and objects repre- 
sented in those sculptures — mountains, rocks, trees, roads, 
rivers, and lakes ; animals and birds and fishes ; men at their 
various occupations in daily life ; religious processions and 
ceremonies ; above all, war and the chase in all their forms. 
In conception, grace, freedom and correctness of outlines, 
the Assyrian sculptures fall undoubtedly far behind the in- 
imitable productions of the Greeks; but they have a gran- 
deur, a dignity, a boldness, a strength, and an appearance of 
life, which make them really valuable as works of art. 

Among the Babylonians, the sculptured stone slabs were 
seldom used. The general ornamentation of palaces con- 



I 5 4 THE BABYLONIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. IV. 

'sisted of colored representations, upon the brickwork, of 
scenes similar to those of Assyria, but diversified with rows 
of cuneiform inscriptions. What bas-relief was to the Assyr- 
ian, that enamelling upon brick was to the people of Baby- 
lon. Both nations used the same tints — white, blue, yellow, 
brown, and black. Both displayed considerable metallurgic 
knowledge in the composition of the pigments, and the pre- 
paration and application of the glaze wherewith they are 
covered. Both were equally skillful in shaping, boring, and 
engraving not only the softer, but also the harder stones. In 
their mastery over tools and materials they surpassed the 
Egyptians, and fell little, if at all, short of the Greeks and 
Romans. 

Industry, Commerce, and Agriculture. — The mass 
of objects recovered from the ruins — vases, jars, bronzes, 
glass bottles, carved ornaments in ivory and mother-of-pearl, 
engraved gems, bells, dishes, earrings, arms, working imple- 
ments — affords evidence of great proficiency attained by the 
Assyrians in various important manufactures. While the 
Babylonians were not inferior to their neighbors in this re- 
spect, they surpassed them in the fabrication of textile 
fabrics. Their wollen carpets and linen cloth, their muslins, 
formed of the finest cotton and dyed in the most brilliant 
colors, enjoyed great celebrity. 

Nor were the Babylonians content with producing what 
served for home consumption. A spirit of enterprise led 
them to engage in traffic ; and at an early age they ventured 
on the open ocean. By Ezekiel, Babylonia is called a land 
of traffic, and Babylon a city of merchants. Isaiah says that 
the cry of the Chaldeans was in their ships ; and ^Eschylus, 
calling the Babylonians in the army of Xerxes ' navigators of 
ships,' witnesses to the nautical character still attached to 
the people after their conquest by the Persians. As traders, 
the Babylonians were distinguished for their honesty, know- 
ing full well that trade can never prosper unless conducted 
with integrity and straightforwardness. 

If a large proportion followed the pursuits of commerce 
and industry, the mass of the Babylonians, however, were 
employed in agriculture. Babylonia was, before all things, 
a grain-producing country. In its deep and rich alluvium, 
cultivated and irrigated with the utmost care, wheat, barley, 
millet, and sesame, flourished with wonderful luxuriance. 
Date-groves also spread widely over the land, and produced 



MORAL DEPRAVITY. 1 55 

an abundance of excellent fruit. On this and goats' milk 
the poorer class almost entirely subsisted, 

Moral Depravity. — Whilst in the ordinary arts and 
appliances of life, the Babylonians and Assyrians were nearly 
on a par with ourselves, their civilization fell immeasurably 
below ours. Savage uncontrolled passions, a debased relig- 
ion, and unchecked tendency to sensual indulgence, bore 
their natural fruit. Of the cruelties which both Assyrians 
and Babylonians practised upon their enemies — the trans- 
plantation of conquered races, the frightful mutilation of pris- 
oners, the massacre of non-combatants, sufficient proof has 
been adduced. Upon the description of their lust often en- 
couraged by religion, it is best not to enter. Suffice it to 
say that polygamy prevailed ; that prostitution was no dis- 
grace ; that drunkenness was common ; that softness and 
luxuriousness of living, sensual pleasures and amusements, 
were regarded as the ends of life ; in a word, that every pos- 
sible form of self-indulgence was sought and practised. 



PART VI. 



THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. 



CHAPTER I. 
The Median Monarchy. — b. c. ? — 558. 

The Aryan, or Indo-European, Race. — As before 
observed, the families of Sem and Cham, settling in two fer- 
tile plains which # were ready to nourish the primitive civili- 
zation, early built up kingdoms on a vast scale of despotic 
power and rude magnificence. The descendants of Japheth, 
on the contrary, long remained in a state of comparative ob- 
scurity. But, by the time we have reached, they have begun 
both to make Cham their 'servant, and to dwell in the tents 
of Sem.' Henceforth they will occupy the foremost position 
in the history of the world. 

Old traditions and recent linguistic studies point to ancient 
Ariana — now Bactriana, Sogdiana, and Margiana — as the 
cradle of the Japhetic race, which of late it has become cus- 
tomary to call the Indo-European, or Aryan,* family of na- 
tions. The Aryan race consists of two branches : the west- 
ern, which comprises the Celtic, Italian, Grecian, Teutonic, 
and Slavonic nations ; and the eastern, which embraces the 
inhabitants of Armenia, Persia, Afghanistan, and Northern 
Hindostan. At what precise epoch the Celtic, or first swarm 

*The Hindoos, in their most ancient Sanscrit writings (the Vedas), 
style themselves Aryans ; so likewise Cyrus and Darius, on their 
monuments. Arya, in Sanscrit, signifies excellent, konoradle. 

14 157 



I 5 8 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. 1. 

of emigrants, left the mother-country in search of western 
homes, and at what intervals their example was imitated by 
the Italians and Greeks, the Teutons and Slavs, or what exact 
road each group followed, cannot be ascertained. Nor is it 
known when the remnant of the primitive Aryan stock which 
lingered behind in the mother-country, again broke up — • 
part of them pouring southward through the passes of the 
Himalaya and Hindoo Koosh into the Punjab, whilst the 
rest spread over Iran, and became the Medes and Persians 
of history. 

The Primitive Aryans. — History has left no record of 
the primitive Aryans. But, rightly judging that when the 
same name for an object or notion is found used by all the 
widely-spread members of the family, that object or notion 
must have been familiar to them while yet residing together 
in the paternal home, ethnologists have drawn, from the af- 
finities found in the language of the various Aryan nations, 
the following picture of the primitive stock. 

They lived a long time peacefully together in their first home, 
as may be inferred from the fact that the words connected 
with peaceful occupations belong to them in common, whilst 
most of the terms relating to chase or warfare differ in each 
of the Aryan dialects. They were a pastoral and agricul- 
tural people ; built themselves houses and towns ; ground 
their corn ; cooked and baked their food ; eat meat, which 
they seasoned with salt ; wove cloth, which they sewed into 
garments ; knew the use of the metals, even of iron ; and, in 
their calculations, followed the decimal principle. They wrote 
from left to right. 

Close affection bound together the members of each fam- 
ily , and thus was formed the basis of that wider union of 
the tribe, or clan, which still survives both among the Per- 
sians and among the Celts of Scotland. Above the patri- 
archs, or chiefs of the clans, stood the king, chosen for his 
wisdom and courage, whose principal functions were to lead 
in war and to administer justice in time of peace. 

The Iranians. — Some historians restrict the word Aryans, 
or Aryas, to the Asiatic branch of the Indo-European race; 
but all agree in dividing that Asiatic, or Eastern, branch into 
two families : the Indians, who crossed the Hindoo Koosh 
into the great valley of the Indus ; and the Iranians, who 
lingered longest in ancient Ariana, but subsequently spread 
westward over the table-land of Iran, or the tract now 



ZOROASTRIANISM. 



*59 



covered by Persia*, Afghanistan, Seistan, and Beloochistan. 

Previous to the coming of the Aryans, the Iranian plateau 
was occupied by Scythic tribes, or nomads 'with houses on 
wheeled carts.' These continued, in historic times, to form 
so large a part of the population that the trilingual inscrip- 
tions of the Persian kings have one column in their language 
— the Medo-Scythic, a Turanianf dialect. The religion of 
these Scythians was Magism ; that of the Iranians, Zoroas- 
trianism. 

Zoroastrianism. — The Aryans long retained in its pu- 
rity the truth of the unity of God, 'the living,' 'the eternal 
spirit, by whom the heaven and earth, space and the firma- 
ment, have been solidly founded, and who spread abroad the 
light in the atmosphere.' But, in process of time, various 
divine beings, called Ahuras or Devas, came to be recog- 
nized, the chief of which were Indra (thunder), Mithra (sun- 
light), Armaiti (earth), Vayu (wind), Agni (fire), and Soma 
(intoxication). Revolting from this worship of nature, Zo- 
roaster, a Bactrian priest, who may have lived about the time 
of Moses and probably no later than iooo B. c, introduced 
the religious reform which has since perpetuated his name. 
He declared the powers hitherto venerated as gods by his 
countrymen to be spiritual intelligences, real persons; and 
divided them into good and bad, pure and impure, benig- 
nant and malevolent. The good spirits he called Ahuras, 
and the bad Devas, At the head of the former he placed, 
as the proper object of the highest worship, Ahura- Mazda, 
or Ormazd, the true Creator, Preserver, and Governor of the 
universe, to whom we find ascribed nearly the same attributes 
that belong to Jehovah, in the books of the Old Testament. 

*The modern kingdom of Persia includes ancient Media, Susi- 
ana, Persis, Carmania, Parthia, and Hyrcania, corresponding- very 
nearly to the western and larger half of the Iranian plateau. The 
limits of the table-land of Iran may be roughly stated as com- 
prised between 46 and 68° of east longitude, and 26 and 36 of 
north latitude. 
( fin opposition to Iran, the name of their own country, the Per- 
sians from the earliest times called the territories lying to the north 
of it Turan, a word still frequently used as synonymous with Tur- 
kestan. The term Turanian, derived from it, has been adopted 
by philologists, to designate all the languages which are neither 
Aryan nor Semitic, with the exception of the Chinese and its cog- 
nate dialects. The Turanian languages are of the agglutinative 
order. Sometimes even the peoples that speak those languages, 
are also called Turanian. 



i6o THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. I. 

This supreme god is the Holy God, the Father of all truth, 
the Master of purity, from whom comes all good to man. 
No images of Ormazd were allowed to be made, and he was 
chiefly worshipped with hymns and bloodless sacrifices. 
Next to him, as his chief angel, was Arma'iti, at once the 
genius of the earth and the goddess of piety. By Zor- 
oaster the worship of Agni was discarded, and that of Soma 
made innocuous. At the head of the bad spirits he placed 
no Great Principle of evil. But by degrees the Iranians, 
seeing evil everywhere conflict with good, came to believe in 
the existence of two coeternal and coequal Persons, one a 
principle of good and the other a principle of evil. That 
evil god was called Arihman. • 

Zoroastrianism, even after the adoption of Arhiman, was 
a less degraded religion than what has usually prevailed 
among heathen nations. To the belief in a spiritual world 
composed of good and bad intelligences, it added the incul- 
cation of the great virtues of truth, purity — mental as well 
as bodily, piety, and industry. To cultivate the soil was a 
religious duty, as counteracting Arhiman, the evil principle. 
Piety consisted in the acknowledgement of the one true God 
and of his holy angels ; in the frequent offering of prayers, 
praises, and thanksgivings ; in the recitation of hymns, and 
the occasional sacrifice of animals. The doctrines of the 
immortality of the soul, of a conscious future existence, and 
of the resurrection of the body, were also parts of the Zo- 
roastrian creed. 

Guebers and Parsis. — When Persia became subject to 
the Mohammedan rule, the great mass of the inhabitants 
were forced to embrace Islam. A few however, braving all 
"sorts of persecution, clung to the ancient religion of Zoroas- 
ter. There are still scattered in the country some 8000 of 
them, known as Guebers, who have a high reputation for 
honor, probity, obedience to the law, chastity, and endurance. 
Others, after various migrations, reached India, where they 
are now settled under the name of Parsis. In the single 
city of Bombay, there are more than 50,000 Parsis, many of 
whom hold a conspicuous rank among its richest, best edu- 
cated, and most honorable citizens. The Parsi priests are 
distinguished for their zeal in the preservation and study of 
their sacred texts. 

Magism was the religion of the various Scythic tribes 
which inhabited the mountain regions of Armenia, Azerbijan, 



MAGISM. l6l 

Kurdistan, and Luristan. Magism acknowledged no personal 
gods. Its chief objects of worship were fire, air, earth, and 
water ; and it was to these very elements, to the actual 
material things themselves, that adoration was paid. Fire, as 
the most subtle and ethereal principle, was held in the highest 
reverence; and, on fire-altars, erected in temples which 
crowned the top of lofty mountains, the sacred flame was 
ever kept burning. 

The Magi. — The Magian religion was of a highly sacer- 
dotal type. Its priests seem to have held their office by 
hereditary succession. They claimed not only a sacred and 
mediatorial character, but also supernatural prophetic powers. 
They explained omens, expounded dreams, and by means of 
the barsom — a bundle of the tamarisk twigs — predicted 
future events. Their dress was imposing, their ceremonial 
magnificent, and their influence over both people and kings 
unbounded. Such was the all-powerful sacerdotal caste of 
the Magi y which the Aryans, on coming into western Iran, 
found among its Scythic occupants. The Medes, recogniz- 
ing its power, adopted it into their body as one of their six 
tribes. With them for the first time were the Magi allowed 
to act as Aryan priests. Gradually the influence of Magism 
increased among the Medes, and in a great degree supplanted 
the original creed of Zoroastrianism. 

The Medes before Cyaxares. — In the genealogy of 
the sons of Japheth {Genesis x), we find Madai among those 
whose descendants, in the days of Moses, had already 
acquired distinction as a separate nation ; and as the word 
seems to designate the Medes, it is but natural to regard 
them as one of the chief primeval races. Nor are there 
wanting other traces of a vast expansion of the Median 
people in Western Asia, at a very early date. But this 
season of prosperity was followed by a long period of weak- 
ness and obscurity. The Medes, when next we meet them, 
during the reign of Salmanasar in (b. C. 858-824), are an 
insignificant people, consisting of separate tribes, which, 
being unable to oner any serious resistance to the Assyrian 
invader, first submit to the payment of an annual tribute, 
and afterwards are incorporated by Sargon (b. c. 710) into 
the empire of Assyria. In this state of subjection they 
remained probably until the time of their great chief Cyaxares, 
when they rose at once to a commanding position in Western 
Asia. 



102 THE! MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. I. 

Cyaxares (b. c. ?-593) and the Founding* of the 
Median Monarchy. — Two causes appear to have brought 
about the sudden growth of the Median power : fresh migra- 
tions from Ariana, and the genius of Cyaxares, who consoli- 
dated the various tribes into one monarchy. This great 
prince, after being acknowledged by the Aryans of Media 
Magna, first set himself to subdue the tract lying between it 
and Assyria ; then, debouching from the passes of the Zagros, 
he boldly invaded Assyria itself. Defeated with great 
slaughter (b. c 634), he led home the remnant of his troops, 
reorganized his army, and returned into Assyria, where he 
avenged his former defeat by the gain of a signal victory. 
At this juncture, a formidable invasion of Scythians inter- 
rupted his career of conquests. But, having finally disen- 
gaged himself from these intruders, Cyaxares resumed 
operations against Ninive ; and, with the aid of the Babylo- 
nians, compassed the fall of the Assyrian monarchy (b. c. 606). 
As his share of the spoils, he took Assyria Proper — the 
districts of the upper and middle Tigris. Other wars 
extended his conquest in the west, where he came into 
collision with the Lydians, then under the sway of their 
famous king Alyattes. But a treaty, mediated by Syennesis 
the Cilician, and ' Labynetusf the Babylonian/ fixed the 
river Halys as the boundary of the rival states. 

Degeneracy of the Medes ; their Dress. — Till now 
the habits of the Medes were simple and manly. But, after 
their conquests, while they continued to be a nation of brave 
soldiers, chiefly formidable as mounted archers, they 
promptly relaxed the severity of ancient manners, affecting 
grandeur in their buildings, variety in their banquets, and 
splendor in dress and apparel. Their favorite garment, in the 
time of peace, was a long-flowing robe, fitting the chest and 
shoulders closely, but falling over the arms in two large, loose 
sleeves opened at the bottom. At the waist, this robe was 
confined by a cincture, below which it fell in ample, graceful 
folds "down to the ankles. Under this chief garment, not 
unfrequently of many colors and made of silk, the Medes 
wore a sleeved shirt or tunic, and trousers. Their head-gear 

-The foundation bf the Median monarchy is attributed by Ctesias 
to Arbaces (about b. c. 875); and by Herodotus, toDejoces, whom 
he makes a contemporary of Sargon. These accounts are contra- 
dicted by the Assyrian monuments. 

I Acting for Nabopolassar. 



B. C. 558-529- CYRUS. 16^ 

Roman poets go so far as to transfer the name to the Par- 
thians, who had succeeded to a great part of the Persian 
empire, including Media itself. 

Of the spirit in which the united administration of Media 
and Persia was to be conducted, Cyrus at once gave an ear- 
nest, both in his generous treatment of Astyages, and in 
his immediate preparations for further conquests. "I saw 
the ram," says Daniel in his impersonation of the Medo- 
Persian kingdom, "pushing with his horns against the west, 
and against the north, and against the south ; and no beasts 
could withstand him, nor be delivered out of his hand." 
Lydia, a country to the north-east, was the first to be incor- 
porated into the new-born empire. 

Crcesus Anticipates the Attack of Cyrus (b. c. 
555). — Lydia* was a province of Asia Minor, noted for its 
fruitful soil and great mineral wealth. Its present king Crce- 
sus, whose riches made his name proverbial to all antiquity, 
had considerably enlarged the kingdom left him by his 
father, Alyattes. All the nations of Asia Minor west of the 
Halys, except the . Lyciansf and the Cilicians, owned his 
sway. When tidings reached him that his friend and rela- 
tive, Astyages, had been thrust from his throne by Cyrus, 
Crcesus, feeling the danger which threatened his own crown, 
resolved to anticipate an attack which his sagacity saw to be 
inevitable ; and he dispatched ambassadors to the kings of 
Babylon and Memphis, Labynetus (or Nabonadius) and 
Amasis, requesting their aid in his contemplated invasion of the 
Persian territory. Alive to their own peril, the princes readily 
promised to second his efforts against the common enemy. 
But, before their contingents reached him, trusting in his own 
resources, and interpreting too favorably an answer of the 
Delphic oracle, that if he attacked the Persians 'he would 
destroy a mighty empire,' Crcesus had crossed the Halys 
into Cappadoeia and inaugurated the momentous struggle. 

The Persians described by Herodotus. — In the re- 
monstrance of a prudent Lydian counsellor, Sandanis, Hero- 
dotus draws a picture of the state of the Persians : "Thou 

*The Lydians boasted a very high antiquity, a claim supported 
in Chap, x of Genesis by the mention of Ltid among 'the children 
of Sem — Elam and Assur and Arphaxad and Lud and Aram.' 

tThe Lycians and the Phrygians are set down as Aryans ; the 
Cappadocians and the Carians, as Turanians. Asia Minor by a 
necessary consequence of its position, contained a mixture of all 
the primitive Asiatic races. 



!66 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. II. 

art about, O king, to make war against men who wear 
leathern trowsers, and have all their other garments of 
leather ; who feed not on what they like, but on what they 
can get from a soil that is sterile and unkindly ; who do not 
indulge in wine, but drink water ; who possess no figs, nor 
any thing else that is good to eat. If, then, thou conquer 
them, what canst thou get from them, seeing that they have 
nothing at all? But, if they conquer thee, consider how 
much that is precious thou wilt lose. If they once get a taste 
of our pleasant things, they will keep such hold of them 
that we shall never be able to make them loose their 
grasp." 

Dethronement of Crcesus (b. c. 554). — In Cyrus, the 
ambition of the conqueror was tempered by the prudence of 
the consummate general. Aiming to disturb his enemy at 
home, he sent heralds to the Ionians, who had but lately been 
subdued by the Lydian king, inviting them to revolt from 
him; but they refused. He then collected his army, and 
went in search of Crcesus, whom he found in the district of 
Pteria, near Sinope, ravaging the country. A bloody battle, 
in which both parties fought valiantly, terminated at nightfall 
without any decisive advantage to either side, As the Per- 
sians, though far superior in numbers, did not renew the at- 
tack, Crcesus was led to undervalue their courage. Con- 
cluding that he had little to fear from them, he leisurely re- 
crossed into his own territory, intending to resume the offen- 
sive after the arrival of his allies. Meanwhile, he sent home 
for the winter most of his own troops. This was the oppor- 
tunity that Cyrus seems to have been waiting for. By forced 
marches he advanced straight to Sardis. Sudden and unex- 
pected as was this offensive movement, Croesus, undismayed, 
placed himself at the head of such soldiers as he could col- 
lect at a few hours' notice, and sallied forth to meet the foe. 
His chief strength consisted of his lancers, then the best 
cavalry in Asia. But Cyrus, knowing that 'the horse has a- 
natural dread of the camel, and cannot abide either the sight 
or the smell of that animal,' placed his camels in front, and 
thus frightened the Lydian horses off the field. The riders 
dismounted, and fought on foot ; but their gallantry was un- 
availing. Crcesus was forced back within the walls of his 
capital. Here he still hoped to maintain himself until the 
arrival of his allies; for Sardis was deemed impregnable. 
But the Persians, climbing a precipitous ascent, which, being 



B. C. 558-529. CYRUS. 167 

thought inaccessible,* had not been fortified, rushed thence 
upon the town, and took it by surprise.f By Cyrus, Crcesus 
was treated with clemency. He outlived his conqueror, and 
after his death enjoyed the same favor with his son and suc- 
cessor, Cambyses. 

Reduction of the Ionians and of Central Asia 
(b. c. 554 — 538) — After taking possession of Sardis, Cyrus 
sent his generals against the Grecian towns of Asia Minor, 
whilst he reduced in person the nations of Central Asia. 
The first that he subdued were the Bactrians, a people of 
Ionic stock, who enjoyed the reputation of having been 
great and glorious at a very early date, and still retained the 
simple and primitive habits of the race. His next acquisition 
was Sacia, the modern districts of Kashgar and Yarkand. 
The Sacae were excellent soldiers. They fought with the 
bow, the dagger, and the battle-axe, and were equally for- 
midable on horseback and on foot. Aided by their women, 
they resisted the invaders with remarkable stubbornness, but 
to no avail. Among other countries subdued by Cyrus in 
this neighborhood, may be mentioned Hyrcania, Parthia, 
Chorasmia, Sogdiana, Aria, Drangiana, Axachosia, Sattagy- 
dia, and Gandaria, that is, the whole tract lying between the 
Caspian and the Indus, south of Jaxartes and north of the 
Great Deserts of Seistan and Khorassan. The reduction of 
those numerous, valiant, and freedom -loving populations, 
occupied the Persian monarch some fourteen years, when he 
felt himself free to march against Babylon. 

Fall of Babylon (b. c. 538). — Master of Central Asia, 
and secure from attack in the rear, Cyrus now crossed the 
Tigris, and overran all the country as far as the neighbor- 
hood of Babylon, intending to lay siege to that city. But he 
no sooner became aware of the strength of the place, than, 
judging it impossible to carry it by storm, he had recourse to 
stratagem. The Euphrates, which had been laboriously 
trained for the protection, trade, and sustenance of the Baby- 
lonians, was now turned to their ruin. Having left detach- 

*A Lydian, who was seen to descend the cliff to fetch his fallen 
helmet and climb up again, unwittingly pointed to the besiegers 
the path which they followed. 

fHerodotus states, in connection with the taking of Sardis, that 
the only son of Crcesus had till then been dumb ; but that, in order 
to save his father's life, which he saw in danger, by a violent effort 
he loosed the strings of his tongue, and forced himself to speak. 



tfS THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. II. 

merits of his army at the two points where the river enters 
and leaves Babylon, Cyrus with the rest of his troops retired 
to the higher part of its course. Here by means of reservoirs 
and canals, he drew off the water of the Euphrates, till it 
was fordable. The period chosen was that of a great Baby- 
lonian festival, when the whole population were engaged in 
revelry. The Persian troops left near the town, watching 
their opportunity, marched along the dried bed of the 
Euphrates, and entered the neglected river-gates. Then 
followed the tumultuous scene of hurry, confusion, fire, and 
massacre, foretold by the prophet Jeremiah. Caught in the 
midst of dance and revelry, ' the mighty men of Babylon 
forebore to fight ; they became as women. In vain one run- 
ning post did meet another, and messenger did meet messen- 
ger, to tell the king that his city was taken from one end to 
the other. None were ready to repel the foe. For her 
princes were made drunk, and her wise men, and her captains, 
and her rulers, and her valiant men ; and they slept a per- 
petual sleep. And the same night Baltassar, the Chaldean 
king, was slain.' 

Monotheism in the Ascendant. — From the fall of 
Babylon may be dated the full establishment of the Persian 
empire, which was thereby increased by the accession not 
only of the province of Babylonia, but of Susiana, Syria, and 
Palestine. Babylon, itself the heir and the successor of 
Assyria, was now supplanted by Persia, as the absolute and 
unrivalled mistress of Western Asia. Nor was the revolution 
just effected less momentous in a religious point of view. 
The sensuous idol-worship, which for more than twenty cen- 
turies had prevailed almost universally between the Mediter- 
ranean and the Zagros mountain-range, ceased to be the 
state religion, and was overshadowed by the purer creed of 
Zoroastrianism. The same blow that brought down the 
Babylonian idols from their pride of place, struck off the 
fetters from Judaism. Recognizing the Lord God of the 
Jews as identical with their own Ormazd, the Persian 
Zoroastrians were happy to protect Judaism ; and the Jews, 
so impatient generally of a foreign yoke, ever remained 
faithful to the Persians. 

Darius the ^ede, Regent at Babylon (b. c. 338- 
336). — A prince of the Median royal family, Darius, whom 
there are many reasons to identify with A sty ages*, once king of 
the Medes, exercised sovereign authority at Babylon, during 



B. c. 55 8 -5 2 9- cyrus. 169 

the interval of two years before Cyrus came to reign there in 
person. Under this Darius 'the Mede,' we find Daniel ap- 
pointed the first of the three presidents who were placed over 
the 120 governors of the provinces. The elevation of a Jew 
by birth and a servant of the late dynasty, gave offense to the 
Medo- Persian grandees. But as Daniel's administration was 
too faultless to give an opening to their envy, they had 
recourse to an ingenious device to compass his ruin. They 
prepared an edict, which forbade, under pain of being cast 
into the den of lions, to ask during the next thirty days any 
petition of any God or man, but of the king himself; and 
they had this decree approved, signed, and published by the 
unsuspecting Darius. Regardless of the edict, Daniel, 
' opening the windows in his upper chamber towards Jeru- 
salem, knelt down thrice a day, and adored, and gave thanks 
to his God, as he had been accustomed to do before.' His 
enemies, who carefully watched his conduct, denounced him 
to Darius. The prince, ' on hearing them, was very much 
grieved, and tried hard to save Daniel. But the accusers 
boldly reminded him, that no law of the Medesand Persians 
might be altered ; ' whereupon the perplexed monarch com- 
manded Daniel to be cast into the den of the lions, not, 
however, without entertaining and expressing a hope that 
Almighty God would preserve him from harm. Then, hav- 
ing sealed, with his own ring and with the ring of his nobles 
the stone which covered the mouth of the den, that nothing 
should be done against Daniel, he " went away to his house, 
and laid himself down without taking supper ; and meat was 
not set before him, and even sleep departed from him. And 
rising early the next morning, he went in haste to the lions' 
den, crying : Daniel, servant of the living God, hath thy 
God, whom thy servest always, been able to deliver thee 
from the lions ? And Daniel, answering the king, said : O 
king, live forever. My God hath sent his angel, and hath 
shut the mouths of the lions, and they have not hurt me. 
Then the king was exceedingly glad for him, and he had 
Daniel taken out of the den ; and, by his order, those men 
were brought that had accused Daniel, and they were cast 
into the lions' den, they and their children and their wives ; 
and they did not reach the bottom of the den, before the lions 
caught them, and broke all their bones to pieces. Then king 
Darius wrote to all peoples, tribes, and languages, dwelling 
in the whole earth: " Peace be multiplied unto you. It is 



1-5 



i;o THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. II. 

decreed by me, that, in all my empire and my kingdom, all 
men dread and fear the God of Daniel ; for he is the living 
and eternal God for ever ; and his kingdom shall not be 
destroyed, and his power shall be forever. He is the 
Deliverer and Savior, doing signs and wonders in heaven 
and on earth, who hath delivered Daniel out of the lions' den." 

The Restored Jewish Nation and Church (b. c. 
336). — The Edict of Darius just quoted was followed by one 
of still greater import, published by. Cyrus throughout his 
dominions: "The Lord God of heaven," he said, "hath 
given to me all the kingdoms of the earth ; and he hath 
charged me to build him a house in Jerusalem. Who is 
there among you of all his people? Let him go up to 
Jerusalem, and build the house of the Lord God of Israel." 
He charged those among whom they dwelt, to help them 
with gold and silver, goods and cattle, besides free-will offer- 
ings for the house of God ; and he restored the 5400 
vessels of the temple, which Nabuchodonosor had car- 
ried away, to Zorobabel, the prince of Judah, with whom 
were associated the high-priest Josue and nine of the chief 
elders. Forty-two thousand three hundred and sixty Jews 
accompanied them to Jerusalem. Others followed at a later 
period. The rest and larger portion, remaining in their new 
abodes, formed what was called the Dispersio7i. 
. Death of Cyrus. — Of the last years of Cyrus, all that 
seems certain is that he fell in battle with the Massagetae, or 
some other Scythian tribe of Central Asia, where probably 
the frontier needed constant protection against the Turanians. 
Possessed of extraordinary activity and great military genius, 
he had, during thirty years, led the Persians from one con- 
quest to another. 

Extent of the Empire. — At his death, Cyrus left an 
empire extending from Sogdiana and the rivers Jaxartes and 
Indus' to the Hellespont and the Syrian coast. But his in- 
cessant wars allowed him no time to inaugurate any general 
system of administration. Some of the conquered countries 
remained under tributary native kings ; others were placed 
under governors ; in some, the functions of government were 
divided, and native officers shared the administration with 
Persians. 

Prompt Degeneracy of the Persians. — The effects 
of Cyrus's conquests on his countrymen began soon to be 
felt. He found them slaves, and made them masters. Not 



B. C. 529-522. CAMBYSES. I7I 

only did the territory of Persia proper pay no tribute ; but 
the vast revenues of the provinces were, to a great degree, 
distributed among its inhabitants. Empire to them meant — 
for % the great, lucrative satrapies ; for the common soldiers, 
abundant maintenance and an unrestrained license. As the 
conquest of Assyria made the Medes effeminate; so did 
prosperity soon rob the Persians of their habits of frugality 
and patient endurance, thus preparing them to fall a prey, 
in their turn, to a more hardy and energetic race. 



CHAPTER III. 
Cambyses and the Magian Usurper (b. c. 529 — 522). 

Accession of Cambyses. — Cambyses, the eldest son and 
successor of Cyrus, has left a most unenviable name. At 
the very beginning of his reign*, he secretly put to death 
his brother Smerdis, of whom he was jealous ; and, when one 
of his sisters, whom he had married, reproached him for the 
deed, he killed her also. Yet, with such perverse instincts, 
Cambyses was not wanting in military capacity, and he ad- 
ded important provinces to the empire. First of all, he pro- 
cured the submission of Phoenicia and Cyprus, the great na- 
val powers of Western Asia, which had not been subject to 
Cyrus. Then, allured by the riches of Egypt, at that time 
in a most flourishing condition, he advanced upon that king- 
dom. A treaty with the chief sheikh of the desert which 
reaches from Gaza to the eastern frontier of the Delta, se- 
cured the safe passage of his army through the Bedouin 
tribes of that region, and the means of transporting water 
on the backs of camels. 

Conquest of Egypt (b. c. 527). — The Egyptians, under 
their new king Psammenitus, who had just succeeded Ama- 

*The great inscription of Darius at Behistun positively states that 
Cambyses slew Smerdis before he proceeded to Egypt, thus con- 
tradicting Herodotus, who says that Smerdis accompanied the army 
into Egypt, but was sent back to Persia out of envy ; and that 
Cambyses, dreaming afterwards that his brother sat upon the royal 
throne, with his head reaching to the heavens, employed a trusty 
Persian, named Prexapses, to go and kill Smerdis at Susa. 



172 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. II. 

sis, awaited the invader at the Pelusiac mouth of the Nile. 
But, after a stubborn fight, they were forced to give way ; 
and sought refuge behind the walls of Memphis. The cap- 
ture of this city was effected, and king Psammenitus was 
made prisoner. He was at first allowed to retain the regal 
dignity, as a dependent of Persia ; and it was not till he was 
discovered stirring up revolt against the conquerors, that he 
was compelled to put an end to his life by drinking bull's 
blood. The conquest of Lower Egypt was followed by the 
submission of the Libyans, as well as of the Greeks of 
Cyrene and Barca. 

Expeditions Against Ethiopia and the Ammonians. 
— These acquisitions did not satisfy the ambition of Camby- 
ses. Inheriting the grandeur of views which characterized 
his father, he wished to add to his empire the Oasis of Am- 
nion, Ethiopia, and Carthage. The enterprise against Car- 
thage he relinquished, on finding that the Phoenicians declined 
to second it. The reduction of the Oasis and Ethiopia was 
undertaken ; but both expeditions sadly miscarried. Fifty 
thousand men, sent to burn the temple of Amnion and bring 
back the Ammonians captives, were overwhelmed by a sand- 
storm in the desert, or killed by the simoon and by thirst. 
A still larger force, led by Cambyses himself towards Ethi- 
opia, found itself short of supplies on its march across 
Nubia, and was compelled to retreat, after suffering consid- 
erable loss. 

Cruel Treatment of the Egyptians. — When, after 
these terrible disasters, Cambyses reentered Memphis, it so 
happened that the whole population were feasting and re- 
joicing, to celebrate the discovery of a new Apis- Cambyses, 
construing this into an intentional insult toward his own re- 
cent misfortunes, put the magistrates to death; and, bidding 
the priests bring Apis into his presence, pierced the animal 
with a dagger. "Think ye, blockheads," he said, "that 
gods become like this of flesh and blood, and sensible to 
steel ! A fit god indeed for Egyptians, such a one !" The 
priests themselves were scourged, and the public rejoicings 
prohibited. From that moment the Egyptians * believed 
that Cambyses was smitten with madness. That he treated 
the sacred objects of their reverence with contempt, and 

* The stories of the Egyptian priests against Cambyses, are col- 
ored by their intense hatred for their conqueror — a hatred passing 
that borne to the Shepherds. 



B. C. 529-522. CAMBYSESl ij\ 

themselves with a severity bordering on cruelty, is certain. 
But there is little doubt that his stern measures crushed an 
incipient revolt. From his departure till near the end of 
the 'reign of his successor, Egypt remained quiet 

Suicide of Cambyses.— Among those acquainted with 
the death of Smerdis was a Median Magus, who, during the 
absence of Cambyses, had been entrusted with extensive 
authority and the entire management of the palace and 
royal treasures. This Magian had a brother, who very much 
resembled the murdered Smerdis. When, therefore, he saw 
that the excesses and cruelty of Cambyses more and more 
alienated from him the minds of his subjects, he resolved to 
place this brother on the throne, as the younger son of Cy- 
rus. Such was the popularity of Smerdis, that the claim of 
the usurper was at once acknov^ledged throughout Persia, 
Media, and the other provinces. Cambyses received the 
news of this revolution in Syria, on his return from Egypt ; 
and, in his despair of overcoming the rebels, he drew his 
dagger, and gave himself a wound of which he died in a few 
days. He had reigned seven years and five months. — Cam- 
byses was brave, active, and energetic, like his father ; but he 
lacked his father's genius, prudence, and affability. His 
pride made him obstinate in error ; his contempt of others 
often led him to harshness and even cruelty. The accusa- 
tion of habitual drunkenness and of madness, was a fiction 
of the Egyptian priests. The Persians had no such idea of 
Cambyses, but merely regarded him as unduly severe and 
selfish. His incestuous marriage with his sister Atossa, 
was wholly repugnant to the feelings and traditions of his 
nation. 

Gomates, or the Pseudo-Smerdis. — The pretended 
Smerdis sought to strengthen himself in the affections of 
his subjects by bestowing great benefits upon them. " For 
no sooner did he come to the throne," says Herodotus, 
"than forthwith he sent round to every nation under his rule, 
and granted them freedom from war-service and from taxes, 
for the space of three years." But religious changes which he 
introduced in the interest of Magism, soon excited consider- 
able disaffection among the Zoroastrians ; and his continued 
seclusion roused suspicion. The fraud becoming known 
to a few Persian nobles, they resolved to rid themselves of the 
usurper. Darius, the son of Hystaspis — a prince of the 



174 



THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. IV. 



royal blood, and the next heir* to the throne, failing the 
issue of Cyrus, with the six other chiefs of the Persian clans, 
gained entrance to the fort in Media where the Magian had 
shut himself up. The pretended Smerdis and his brother 
were killed ; and the conspirators, rushing forth, showed the 
heads of the two impostors to the people. 

Massacre of the Magians. — The deception was forth- 
with avenged by a general massacre of the Magians, which 
only ended with the fall of night ; and the anniversary of 
this event was afterward celebrated by the great festival called 
Magophonia, when no Magian might stir abroad during the 
whole day, on pain of death. Even after the Magian relig- 
ion was combined with the Persian, and while the Magi 
constituted the priestly caste of the Persian nation, the feast 
continued to be kept. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Darius i Hystaspis (b. c. 521 — 4S6). — Climax of the 
Persian Empire. 

Darius i, the son of Hystaspis, is rightly regarded as the 
second founder of the Persian empire. At his accession, 
which is dated on the first day of 521 b. c, he was twenty- 
eight years of age ; and he died at sixty-four, Dec. 23d, B. c. 
486. In the epitaph upon his tomb he describes himself as 
"Darius, the Great King, the King of kings ; the king of all 
inhabited countries ; the king of this great earth, far and 
near ; the son of Hystaspis, an Achaemenian ; a Persian, the 
son of a Persian ; an Aryan, of Aryan descent." 

* Herodotus, who was not aware of the true position of Darius as 
heir to the throne, makes him but one of seven Persian chiefs who 
conspired against Gomates. He describes the plot as concocted 
by Otanes, whose daughter Phaedina, one of the usurper's wives, 
detected the false Smerdis by his want of ears — the Magian having 
suffered that mutilation for some great crime in the reign of Cyrus. 
Herodotus allows five days to elapse between the slaying of Go- 
mates and the recognition of Darius as king, the latter's election 
being finally represented as the result of a device of his groom 
and the neighing of his horse. 



B. C. 521-4S6. DARIUS I. 



/ D 



The Behistun Inscription. — The events of the first 
five years of Darius are recorded by himself in the behistun 
Inscr ption. Near the south-western frontier of Media, on 
the high road from Babylon to Ecbatana, there is a precipi- 
tous cliff about 1700 feet in height, overlooking a plain where 
"the Persian kings had a 'paradise/ or garden, with a palace 
and a city. This is the Behistun* rock. Its face is carved 
with sculptures and inscriptions of four different ages. The 
first is of unknown antiquity ; the second is the great record 
of Darius ; the third celebrates the victory of a Parthian king 
over a rival ; the fourth is a modern inscription in Arabic, of 
merely local interest. The record of Darius, carved at the 
height of 300 feet above the plaint, is in the three languages, 
in which the Persian kings were wont to issue their edicts to 
their Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian subjects — the Persian, 
Babylonian, and Medo-ScythicJ. Besides the overthrow of 
the Magian usurper and the restoration of the Zoroastrian 
worship, the Inscription mentions the suppression of a series 
of rebellions, which prove that Darius had to reconquer the 
whole empire, except Lydia and Egypt. "While I was at 
Babylon," he says, "these are the countries which revolted 
against me : Persia, Susiana, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Par- 
thia, Margiana, Sattagydia, Sacia." Thus the empire, shaken 
to its centre, threatened to fall. But the military talent and 
prudence of the young sovereign prevailed. When he carved 
his inscription on the monumental rock of Behistun, in the 
sixth year of his reign, b. c. 516, he had reestablished his 
authority over the 23 provinces which he enumerates as given 
him by Ormazd. During that interval, Babylon had twice 
revolted, and had twice been subdued. What historical value 
attaches to certain details handed down by Herodotus con- 
cerning the siege of that place, is uncertain ||. 

Siege of Babylon. — During all the time, says Hero- 
dotus, that the Magus was king, and while the Seven were 
conspiring, the Babylonians had profited by the troubles, 

*The old Persian name of Bagistan is retained in the present 
Behistun, Bisitun, or Bosfan. 

|It was with no small difficulty that Sir H. Rawlinson obtained 
the copy, his translation of which formed the decisive epoch of cu- 
neiform interpretation, a. d. 1846. 

JThe rock itself stands near the confines of Persia, Babylonia, and 
Media — the chief seat of the old Turanian population. 

|| "There is every reason to believe," says G. Rawlinson, "that 
they belong to Oriental romance." 



176 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. IV. 

and made themselves ready against a siege. Indeed for 
twenty months they baffled all the efforts of Darius, and he 
was almost despairing of success, when one of his chief of- 
ficers, Zopyrus, conceived and executed the following strat- 
agem. He presented himself to the besieged, covered with 
blood, his ears and nose cut off. He told the Babylonians 
that he had thus been maimed by Darius, because he exhorted 
him to desist from so unprofitable a siege, adding that he 
came over to them as the sole means of procuring for him- 
self signal vengeance. They believed him, and gave him 
the command of some troops. Several advantages which he 
gained in different sallies, according to previous concert with 
Darius, so increased their confidence that at length they 
placed under his charge the principal gates. At the critical 
moment, these gates were thrown open, and the Persians 
became masters of Babylon. After the second revolt of that 
city, its walls were partially demolished to prevent all thought 
of future rebellion. 

Edict of Darius in Favor of the Jews (b. c. 520). 
One of the earliest and most important acts of Darius was 
an edict for the resumption of the building of the temple 
at Jerusalem, which the Magian had interrupted. Besides 
confirming the old decree of Cyrus, this new one assigned 
from the royal stores a fresh grant of money and other 
things necessary for the furtherance of the pious under- 
taking, request being made that oblations and prayers 
might be offered to the God of heaven for the king and his 
children. Thus aided and protected, the Jews resumed the 
building of the temple; and, in the 6th year of Darius, 21 
years after its commencement, the house of God was finished, 
and its dedication took place. — Nor was it in Judea alone 
that Darius favored monotheism. After his accession, he lost 
no time in rebuilding the Zoroastrian temples pulled down 
by the Magus, and restoring the religious institutions annulled 
by him. It is thought that several of the revolts which dis- 
turbed the beginning of his reign, occurred in consequence 
of the extraordinary zeal he displayed in favor of pure Zo- 
roastrianism. 

Organization^ of the Empire: Satrapies. — When 
Darius had confirmed his authority throughout the empire, 
he applied himself to the task of bringing its many provinces 
into some fixed organization, and of establishing everywhere 
a uniform system of government. He divided his vast 



1. C. 521-486. DARIUS I. I77 

lominions into satrapies, so called from the officer — satrap — 
vho held in each, the supreme civil authority, as the viceroy, 
>r lieutenant, of the king. The limits of the satrapies corres- 
ponded, for the most part, to the old boundaries of the nations 
ncorporated into the empire. Their government was as- 
igned, as far as possible, to members of the royal family and 
o nobles connected with it by marriage. Each satrapy was 
issessed to a regular amount of tribute, fixed in accordance 
vith its resources. 

The Military Force. — A standing army, drawn entirely 
rom the dominant race, was distributed through the satrapies 
o support the civil power and maintain tranquillity ; but the 
:ommand of these, except in the frontier provinces, was en- 
rusted to officers independent of the satraps. Though the 
egular profession of arms was confined to the Medo-Per- 
ians, the conquered races were called upon to furnish their 
mota, whenever a great effort was required ; then the soldiers 
)f each satrapy appeared in their own national equipment. — 
rhe navy of the empire was furnished by the maritime sub- 
ject-nations, which provided contingents of ships and crews 
iccording to their relative strength. 

The Royal Judges and Secretaries. — The adminis- 
ration of justice was committed to royal judges. Like the 
nilitary commanders, these magistrates were independent 
)f the satraps, and were appointed by the king. Besides 
he satrap, military commander, and judges, there was 
itationed in each province a royal secretary, who communi- 
:ated directly with the king, sending his reports and receiv- 
ng dispatches from the capital by means of 'posts on horse- 
jack and riders on mules, camels, and young dromedaries.' 
Sometimes the secretary was the organ of a royal decree for 
he deposition, or even the death, of a satrap. 

Darius Conquers India. — The able monarch, to whom 
he Persian empire owed its civil and military organization, 
vas not disposed to allow the warlike qualities of his subjects 
:o be enfeebled for want of exercise. He led an army into 
he valley of the Indus, and subdued the territories now 
mown as the Punjah and Scinde.* The reduction of a val- 
lable gold-tract, and the augmentation of the royal revenue 
)y about one-third, were the results of this expedition. The 
lewly-acquired province added also a body of brave soldiers 

* They were then the only part called India (Sind). 



I7 § THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. IV. 

to the army. These warriors from the farthest East appeared 
among the troops of Xerxes in their cotton dresses, with 
their bows of cane and arrows of cane tipped with iron, and 
so met the Greeks on the field of Plateea. 

Scythia, in ancient times, designated a vast, indefinite, 
and almost unknown territory beyond the Caucasus, the 
Caspian, the sandy deserts of Khiva and Kharesm, and 
the great central Asiatic mountain-chains. The inhabi- 
tants of this immense tract were mainly nomadic and pas- 
toral. By Herodotus and Hippocrates, who visited the 
steppe country in the 5th century before our era, the Scyth- 
ians are described as a people coarse and gross in their habits, 
living either on horseback, in wagons, or in felt tents ; subsist- 
ing chiefly on mare's milk and cheese ; drinking the blood of 
a slain enemy, parading his scalp as a trophy, and making 
the upper portion of his skull into a drinking-cup. Scythia 
reached to the banks of the Danube in the west ; and Darius, 
who contemplated the reduction of Thrace, Greece, and 
perhaps Italy, saw the necessity of striking terror into 
the Scyths of Europe, if he wished to keep his communica- 
tion with Asia intact. 

Invasion of Scythia (b. c. 508). — Collecting a fleet of 
600 ships chiefly from the Greeks of Asia, and an army of 
more than 700,000 men from all the nations of his empire, 
Darius crossed the Bosphorus by a bridge of boats ; and, 
conquering on his way the Thracians within, and the Getse 
beyond, Mount Haemus,* he marched to the Danube, which 
he passed on a bridge formed by the ships of the Ionians, 
just above the point where its mouths divide. 

The Scythians retreated before the invaders, avoiding a 
pitched battle, and using every stratagem to detain them in 
the country till they should perish of hunger. When the 
Persian army seemed inextricably involved, says Herodotus, 
a herald arrived with strange presents to Darius from the 
Scythian princes — a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows. 
The king saw in this a surrender, signified by the symbols of 
earth, water, the means of motion, and the weapons of war. 
But Gobryas, one of his chief lords, gave the true interpreta- 
tion : " Unless, Persians, ye can fly in the air like birds, or 
hide yourselves In the earth like mice, or swim in the water 
like frogs, ye shall not escape the arrows of the Scythians." 

*The Great Balkan. 



B. C. 52I-486. DARIUS I. ijg 

By this time, however, the object of Darius was accomplished. 
He had destroyed the only town which was to be found in 
the whole steppe region. He had paraded his immense 
military power before the nations ; he had captured many of 
their herds, and curtailed their supplies of forage. So he 
began to retrace his steps ; and, having suffered no serious 
loss, recrossed the Danube after a campaign of somewhat 
more than two months. 

Conquest of Thrace and Macedonia (b. c. 506- 
505). — Darius left behind him in Europe an army of 80,000 
men under Megabasus, to complete the reduction of Thrace. 
This was effected in a single campaign. Macedonia also 
submitted, and the dominions of the Great King now reached 
from the Indian desert to the borders of Thessaly, and from 
the Caucasus to Ethiopia. 

Darius at Susa. — The seat of government at this time 
appears to have been at Susa. This city, henceforth the 
main Persian capital, possessed great advantages of position 
and climate over Ecbatana, Persep^lis, and Babylon. Here 
Darius, fatigued with his warlike exertions, rested himself 
for a while in the tranquil life of the court. How his repose 
was broken by the Ionian revolt, and how this revolt led to 
the doub e expedition of Mardonius and Datis into Europe, 
will be related in connection with Grecian history. Darius 
was preparing to lead in person a third expedition into 
Greece, as also to reduce Egypt, which had just revolted. 
But death surprised him, before his preparations were com- 
pleted (b. c. 486). 

Character of Darius ; his Tomb. — Darius Hystaspis 
was, next to Cyrus, the greatest of the Persian kings. If 
inferior to Cyrus in military genius, he surpassed him in 
administrative talent. To Darius the empire owed its 
organization, without which Persia would probably have 
sunk as rapidly as she rose. It is his glory to have devised 
a system whereby a crude agglomeration of ill-assorted ele- 
ments, hanging loosely together by the single tie of subjec- 
tion to a common head, became a compact, regularly-organ- 
ized, and well-regulated fabric. 

Darius was buried in the vicinity of Persepolis, where he 
had prepared for himself an elaborate rock-tomb, adorned 
with sculptures, and bearing a long inscription — all of which 
remain to the present day. The great edifices near Perse- 
polis were his conception, and in great part his work ; as 



180 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE, Chapt. IV. 

were also the equally magnificent structures at Susa, which 
became, after him, the ordinary royal residence. 

Persian Palaces. — The simplicity of their worship giv- 
ing little scope for architectural grandeur in the buildings 
devoted to religion, the Persian monarchs concentrated their 
main efforts upon the construction of palaces and tombs. 
Their palaces were erected on elevated platforms, which not 
unfrequently consisted of distinct terraces rising above one 
another. The platforms and terraces were formed of solid 
masses of hewn stone, and were approached by broad flights 
of stairs, sloping so gently as to make it easy to ride horses 
both up and down. Some of these staircases were remarka- 
ble not only for their length and width, but for their striking 
and unusual design. One of them, belonging to the great 
palace, in the neighborhood of Persepolis, has been pro- 
nounced ' the noblest example of a flight of stairs to be found 
in any part of the world;' another, at the same place, has the 
entire face which it presents to the spectator, and both sides 
of its parapet wall, covered with sculptures ; a third is cut 
in the solid rock. 

The platforms ordinarily sustained, not only what we may 
call the royal residence proper, or apartments for habitation ; 
but also propylaea, or gateways, fronting some landing- 
place at the head of the stairs, and halls of a vast size. The 
courts and buildings forming the royal residence, at the 
Persepolitan palace, when it had attained its full dimensions 
under Xerxes, covered a space 500 feet long and 375 feet 
wide. Of the four propylaea, at the same place, the largest, 
which stood directly opposite the great stairs leading to the 
platform from the plain, consisted of a noble apartment 82 
feet square with walls of unusual thickness and a roof sup- 
ported by 4 magnificent columns nearly 60 feet high ; two 
grand portals, flanked with colossal bulls led into this apart- 
ment. 

But what constituted the distinguishing feature of Persian 
architecture, are the great pillared halls. Of these the Per- 
sepolitan platform supported two. The larger called the 
Hall of a hundred columns, was a square of 227 feet whose 
roof was supported by 200 pillars 35 feet high, disposed in 
rows of ten each. This magnificent chamber was fronted by 
a portico 183 feet long and 52 feet deep, which was sustained 
by 16 pillars arranged in two rows. 

Besides such halls as the one just described, the Persian 



PERSIAN ARCHITECTURE. igl 

palatial platforms sustained open pillared edifices, which 
may be called summer throne rooms, and were not protected 
otherwise than by means of the roof and curtains. One 
such building at Persepolis was a square of 36 pillars ar- 
ranged in 6 rows of 6, and covering an area of above 20,000 
square feet. On three sides of that square, but at a distance 
of 70 feet from it, were magnificent porches, 142 feet long 
by 30 broad, each consisting of 1 2 columns arranged in two 
rows, which corresponded with the pillars of the central clus- 
ter. All these pillars were 64 feet high, and many are nearly 
entire to this day. 

All the Persian pillars are of stone. Some, apparently in- 
tended to be covered permanently with hangings, are plain, 
tapering gently as they ascend. The others are beautifully 
fluted along their entire length. The capitals and bases are 
often exquisitely wrought. The bases of the pillars which 
form the colonnades last referred to, in particular attract the 
admiration of all beholders. Bell-shaped and ornamented 
with a double or triple row of pendent lotus leaves, some 
rounded, some narrowed to a point, they are most graceful. 

Regularity and proportion were characteristics of Persian 
architecture. For effect, it depended chiefly on the grand 
sculptured stairways which formed the approaches to all the 
principal buildings, and the vast groves of elegant pillars in 
and about the great halls. The use of huge blocks of stone, 
not only in platforms, but in the buildings themselves, attest 
great mechanical skill. 

Persian Magnificence. — The internal decoration of 
Persian palaces was on a par with their architectural grandeur. 
' Hangings of white and green and blue, fastened with cords 
of white and purple to silver rings,' carpets of dazzling 
brightness, richly colored drapings, and canopies of purple 
over thrones of gold, may give us an idea of the magnifi- 
cence displayed in these superb buildings. Nor need we 
wonder at it, when we recollect that their good swords gave 
to the Persians the command of all that was most exquisite 
and admirable, whether in the natural world or among the 
products of human industry. By their conquests they fell 
heirs to all the riches accumulated for ages at Sardis, Mem- 
phis, and Babylon. 



le 



l8 2 THE MEDO-PERS1AN EMPIRE. Chapt. V. 

CHAPTER V. 

The Decline and Fall of the Persian Empire. — b. c. 486-330. 



Accession of Xerxes i (b. c. 486). — The beginning of 
the reign of Xerxes, the Assuerus of the Book of Esther, 
was signalized by a glorious event — the reconquest of Egypt. 
This done, the king turned his attention to the subjugation 
of Greece, for which the most stupendous preparations went 
on uninterruptedly during the space of four years. It was 
in view of this Grecian expedition that, in the third year of 
his accession he called to Susa ' the most mighty of the Per- 
sians, and the nobles of the Medes, and the governors of the 
provinces.' After he had fixed the quota of troops and 
amount of provisions they were expected to furnish, and they 
had returned to their respective governments, the king in- 
vited all the people of his capital to a seven days' banquet 
prepared for them in the palace gardens. " And there hung 
up on every side sky-colored and green and violet hang- 
ings, fastened with cords of silk and of purple, which were 
put into rings of ivory, and were sustained on marble pillars. 
The beds also were of gold and silver, placed in order upon 
a floor paved with porphyry and white marble. And they 
who were invited drank in golden cups ; and the meats were 
brought in divers vessels one after another. Wine also in 
abundance and of the best was presented, as was worthy of 
royal magnificence." 

Queen Esther. — The expedition of Xerxes into Greece, 
as shall be related in the history of that country, proved a 
complete failure. After his return, the king seems to have 
given himself up without restraint to his lust. Then it was 
that, through the 127 provinces of the empire, the most 
beautiful virgins were sought out, and brought to the royal 
harem at Susa. This, by an effect of divine Providence, led 
to the elevation oi" a Jewish maiden, Edissa, or Esther, an 
orphan, whom her uncle Mardochai had adopted for his 
daughter. She found favor with Xerxes above all the other 
women of the seraglio, and ' he set the royal crown on her 
head, and made her queen instead of Vasthi,' whom he had 



QUEEN ESTHER. J&? 

repudiated. " And he commanded a magnificent feast to be 
prepared for all the princes and for his servants, on the occa- 
sion of the marriage. And he gave a remission of tributes 
to all the provinces, and bestowed gifts according with 
princely munificence." Esther concealed from the king her 
country and people, by Mardochai's advice, whom she con- 
tinued to obey ' as she was wont at that time when he brought 
her up a child.' And Mardochai, who abode near the king's 
palace, discovered a plot against the life of the prince, and 
gave notice of it to Queen Esther. She told the king in 
Mardochai's name. The conspirators, on being found out, 
were hanged ; and the fact * was put in the histories, and 
recorded in the chronicles before the king. ' 

Proscription and Rescue of the Jews. — Xerxes, 
after the discovery of the plot, advanced Aman, a Mede, to 
the post of prime-minister, ordering, at the same time, his 
servants to bend the knee to his favorite, and worship him. 
This Mardochai refused to do, when Aman, in his anger, 
resolved not only to kill him, but to destroy with him all the 
Jews who were in the kingdom of his master. Representing 
them to Xerxes as a race who 'despised the king's ordi- 
nances,' he obtained his permission to deal with them as he 
pleased. So, calling the royal scribes, he made them ' write 
to all the king's lieutenants, and to the judges of the provinces 
and of divers nations, as every nation could read and hear, 
according to their different languages ; and the letters, sealed 
with the royal ring, were sent by the king's messengers to all 
the provinces-, to kill and destroy all the Jews, on the thir- 
teenth of the twelfth month, and to make a spoil of their 
goods. And in all the provinces, towns, and places to which 
the king's cruel edict was come, there was great mourning 
among the Jews with fasting, wailing, and weeping, many 
using sackcloth and ashes for their bed.' At Susa, Mardo- 
chai joined with his brethren in deeds of penance ; and, send- 
ing a copy of the edict to Esther, admonished her to go in to 
the king, and to entreat him for her people. " All the king's 
servants," she made answer, "know that whoever cometh 
into the king's inner court, who is not called for. is immedi- 
ately to be put to death without any delay, except the king- 
shall hold out the golden sceptre to him, in token of clemency, 
that so he may live. How then can I go in to the king, who 
for these thirty days now have not been called in to him ? " 
But, Mardochai insisting that she should devote herself for 



184 THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. V. 

her people, she added : " Go, and gather all the Jews whom 
thou shalt find in Susa, and pray ye for me. Neither eat 
nor drink for three days and three nights ; and I with 
my handmaids will fast in like manner ; and then I will go- 
in to the king, against the law, not being called, and expose 
myself to death and to danger." God heard the prayers of 
his afflicted servants, and blessed the self-devotion of Esther. 
The king's heart was touched. Aman was hanged on the 
gibbet which he had prepared for Mardochai ; and the latter 
succeeding him as prime minister, obtained from the king 
fresh letters, reversing the former, and 'commanding the 
Jews in every city to gather themselves together, and to 
stand for their lives.' Thus authorized to defend themselves 
in case of attack, ' they made a great slaughter of their 
enemies, insomuch that the number of those who were 
killed, in the empire, amounted to 75,000.' A solemn feast, 
called the Purim, was instituted to celebrate their deliver- 
ance. 

Character and Death of Xerxes. — Xerxes was not 
destitute of a certain magnanimity, which made him listen 
patiently to those who opposed his views or gave him 
unpalatable advice, and which prevented him from exacting 
vengeance on certain occasions. In other respects, we find 
little to praise in him and much to blame. Weak and selfish, 
cruel and licentious, without either moral or intellectual 
qualities, he fell far below his predecessors. With him com- 
menced the decline of the empire, and those internal disor- 
ders of the seraglio which made the court, during more than 
140 years, a constant scene of intrigues, assassinations, execu- 
tions, and conspiracies. Under him also the power of the 
eunuchs began to exceed all due limits. Having made him- 
self many enemies among those nearest to his person by 
yielding to his unbridled passions, he was murdered in his 
sleeping apartment by the chief of his guard and his cham- 
berlain (b. c. 465). 

Accession of Artaxerxes i Longimanus (the Long- 
handed). — Artaxerxes was not the eldest son of Xerxes. 
He came to the throne by the murder of his elder brother 
Darius*, and maintained himself in possession of the crown 
by waging a successful war with another brother, Hystaspis, 

^Artaxerxes, then very young, was made to believe that the 
assassination of his father was the act of Darius. 



ESDRAS. I85 

satrap of Bactria. He had hardly suppressed the Eactrian 
revolt, when Egypt, under Inarus and Amyrtaeus, once more 
threw off the Persian yoke (b. c. 460). Aided by a power- 
ful Athenian armament, the Egyptian rebels kept up an 
unequal contest for the space of five years, but at last were 
forced into submission. When, in 449 b. C , the Athenians 
renev/ed their attacks against Persia, Artaxerxes concluded 
with them, on the footing of mutual concessions, the cele- 
brated Peace of Callias, of which further notice shall be 
taken in the history of Greece. Of greater interest to us 
are the commissions given by Artaxerxes to Esdras and 
Nehemiah, containing provisos so favorable to the people 
of God. 

Commission of Esdras (b. c. 458). — Eighty years had 
elapsed since the rebuilding of the temple, when Esdras, 'a 
ready scribe in the Law of Moses,' who had gained the favor 
of Artaxerxes, obtained from this prince permission to lead 
back a second caravan of exiles to Jerusalem. Some six 
thousand Jews accompanied him, bearing offerings from the 
king and his counsellors, and freewill-offerings from the 
people, besides vessels for the service of the temple. "And 
whatever more," the king said to Esdras in his decree, "there 
shall be need of for the house of thy God, how much soever 
thou shalt have occasion to spend, it shall be given out of 
the treasury. I, Artaxerxes, the king, have ordered all the 
keepers of the public chest, who are beyond the river, that 
whatever Esdras the priest shall require of you, ye give it 
without delay, unto 100 talents of silver, and unto 100 cores 
of wheat, and unto 100 baths of wine, and unto 100 baths of 
oil, and salt without measure. All that belongeth to the 
rites of the God of heaven, let it be given diligently in the 
house of the God of heaven, lest His wrath be enkindled 
against the realm of the king and of his sons." At the same 
time, the priests and ministers of the temple were exempted 
from taxation ; and Esdras was commanded to appoint and 
instruct magistrates and judges over the people beyond the 
river, with authority to punish, even to death, all who broke 
the law of God and the king. 

Esdras found much evil among his coreligionists in Judea. 
He exerted himself especially to stop the abuse of inter- 
marriage with the idolatrous nations of the neighborhood. 
But neither in this nor in other respects did he succeed in 
effecting a permanent reform. 



jS6 THE MED0-P£RSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. v. 

Commission of Nehemiah (b. c 445). — In the 20th year 
of Artaxerxes, grievous tidings from Jerusalem reached the 
royal winter residence at Susa. News was brought to 
Nehemiah, the king's cup-bearer, that the Israelites in Judea 
were ' in great affliction and reproach ; that the walls of 
Jerusalem were still broken down, and the gates thereof 
burned,' as they had been left by Nabuchodonosor. 'And 
when I had heard these words," writes Nehemiah, "I, 
sat down, and wept, and mourned for many days ; and I 
fasted, and prayed before the God of heaven. And it came 
to pass, four months later, that the king said to me : Why is 
thy countenance sad, seeing thou dost not appear to be sick ? 
This is not without cause ; but some evil, 1 know not what, 
is in thy heart. And I was seized with a great fear ; and I 
said to the king : O king, live forever ! Why should not 
my countenance be mournful, seeing the city of the sepulchres 
of my fathers is desolate, and the gates thereof are burnt 
with fire ? Then the king said to me : For what dost thou 
make request ? And I said to the king : That thou wouldst 
send me into Judea to the city of the sepulchres of my 
fathers, and I will build it. And the king said to me, the 
queen sitting by him : For how long will the journey be, 
and when wilt thou return ? And it pleased the king, and he 
sent me; and I fixed him a time." So Nehemiah started, 
with a body-guard, and with royal letters requiring both the 
governors west of the Euphrates to aid his journey, and the 
keeper of the king's forests to supply him with timber. On 
his arrival, summoning his brethren: "Come," he said to 
them, "let us build up the walls of Jerusalem, and let us be no 
longer a reproach. Let us rise up and build. And their hands 
were strengthened in good." To resist the plots of their hos- 
tile neighbors and of the disaffected among themselves, half 
of the people remained under arms, while the other half labored 
at the work, girded with their swords. Nehemiah kept a trum- 
peter always by his side to sound the alarm, and neither he 
nor his guard put off their clothes except for washing. In 
a few months of unremitting labor, the walls were finished 
and the gates hung up ; and now for the first time since their 
return could the Jews meet to worship God under the pro- 
tection of their ramparts, with their new liberties and their 
existence as a nation no longer at the mercy of their enemies. 

Covenant of the Jewish People. — Then the sacred 
writings, which had just been collected into one" volume by 



NEHEMIAH. 



I87 



Esdras, were read and explained before the assembled 
Israelites, who by turn wept at the recital, or rejoiced. The 
Feast of Tabernacles, which lasted an entire week, and the 
Day of Atonement, were kept with appropriate rites. All 
this time, the reading of the Scriptures went on ; and the 
people ended by making- a new covenant with God, which 
was recorded in writing and signed by the princes, priests, 
and Levites, while the rest of the people bound themselves 
by a curse and an oath to walk in the law given them by 
God through Moses. The chief points of this covenant 
were : Not to intermarry with the heathens ; to abstain from 
traffic on the Sabbath, and to keep the Sabbatic year, with 
its release of all debts ; to pay a yearly tax of a third of a 
shekel for the services of the sanctuary ; finally, to offer the 
first-fruits and first-born, and the tithes due to the Levites 
and the priests. To most points of this covenant the Jewish 
nation remained faithful. 

Character of Artaxerxes Longimanus.— Though 
Artaxerxes seems to have been mild in temperament, and 
even kind and good-natured, his character must be pro- 
nounced weak and contemptible. Through most of his reign, 
he was under the control of Amytis his sister, and Amestris 
his mother — both of whom were persons of ill-regulated 
lives and cruel dispositions. The disorders of the Court 
increased under him ; and the decay of the empire was 
accelerated by the impunity granted to Megabysus, satrap 
of Syria, who, after his revolt, was allowed to dictate the 
terms of his reconciliation. From his legitimate wife, Da- 
maspia, Artaxerxes left only one son, Xerxes; but 17 other 
sons from various concubines survived him. 

Xerxes ii and Sogdianus (b. c. 425). — Xerxes 11 reigned 
45 days only, being murdered at a festival by his half brother, 
Sogdianus. Sogdianus enjoyed the sovereignty for little 
more than half a year, when he was in turn put to death by 
another brother, Ochus, who, on ascending the throne, took 
the name of Darius, but was by the Greeks surnamed 
Nothus (the bastard). 

Darius ii Nothus (b. c., 424-405). — This prince's reign, 
which lasted 19 years, was disturbed by endless rebellions, 
some of which had permanent and very disastrous conse- 
quences. Under Darius Nothus, Egypt regained her indepen- 
dence, and the satraps came to be practically uncontrolled in 
their provinces. Cunning and treachery were made the sole 



i8S THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE. Chapt. V. 

weapons wherewith the Persian government contended with 
their enemies. Manly habits were laid aside, and the nation 
learned to trust more and more to the swords of mercenaries. 
Both weak and wicked, false alike to friends and foes, Darius 
was the slave of his wife, Parysatis, one of the most cruel 
and malignant even of Oriental women. Bv her he had two 
sons, Artaxerxes and Cyrus. The former was born before, 
the latter after, Darius came to the throne ; and herein lay 
the germ of a disputed succession. 

Artaxerxes ii. Mnemon (b. c. 405-359). — Darius, on 
his death-bed, nominated his first-born as his successor. 
Thinking himself injured thereby, Cyrus laid plans to take 
his brother's life during the ceremony of the inauguration at 
Passagardse. Discovered, but shielded from punishment by 
his mother, who, embracing him in her arms, made it im- 
possible for the executioner to perform his task, the ambi- 
tious youth withdrew to his satrapy of Asia Minor. Here he 
secretly employed the resources of his province in raising 
an army, which he led against the king. His death, at 
Cunaxa (b. C. 401), freed Artaxerxes from imminent ruin. 
A few years later, through the treachery of Sparta, the 
Great King enjoyed the good fortune of imposing upon the 
Grecian states the treaty of Antalcidas (b. c. 393), which 
once more placed all the Asiatic Greeks at the mercy of 
Persia. Cyprus also was recovered to the empire. But an 
attempt to reduce Egypt failed; and the latter years of 
Artaxerxes were marked by fresh revolts of satraps — put 
down by the ordinary resources of bribery and treachery. 

Mild, affable, good-natured, and affectionate, but of ex- 
cessive weakness, and held in a species of bondage by 
his mother Parysatis, a monster of cruelty, Artaxerxes 11 
was unfortunate in his domestic relations. Statira, his first 
wife, to whom he was fondly attached, was torn from his 
bosom and poisoned by Parysatis ; and three of his sons 
were murdered under his eyes by their brother, Ochus, who 
became his successor. 

Ochus (b. c. 359-338). — Ochus was the most cruel and 
sanguinary of all the Persian kings. He is indeed the only 
monarch of the Achaemenian line who appears to have been 
bloodthirsty by temperament. He attained the throne, and 
maintained himself on it, by a series of ruthless murders, 
destroying, so far as he could, all the members of the royal 
family who might dispute the succession. Having thus prov 



ITS FALL. 



I89 



vided for the security of his crown, Ochus turned his ener- 
gies to the prosecution of other and more honorable enter- 
prises. With the aid of two able ministers — Mentor the 
Rhodian, and Bagoas, the chief of the eunuchs, he put down 
a rebellion of the Cypriots ; reduced the Phoenicians, who 
had revolted under the leadership of Sidon ; effected the 
reconquest of Egypt ; and was planning measures for check- 
ing the growing power of Macedon, when he was poisoned by 
Bagoas at Susa. 

Darius Codomannus (b. c. 336-330). — The wicked 
Bagoas, after setting the youngest son of Ochus, Arses, upon 
the throne, and putting him to death in his third year, gave 
the crown to him who was last to wear it, Darius in Codo- 
mannus. How this amiable prince was to be cast down from 
his pride of place, is vividly depicted in the symbolic prophecy 
of Daniel : " And, behold, a he-goat came from the west on 
the face of the whole earth, and touched not the ground " — 
a striking image of the rapidity of Alexander's conquest. 
"And he went up to the ram that had two horns, and ran 
toward him in the fury of his power. And when he was 
come near the ram, he was enraged against him, and smote 
him, and brake his two horns, and cast him down to the 
ground, and stamped upon him ; and none could deliver the 
ram out of his hand." 

The story of the Persian empire, virtually ended at Arbela 
in the autumn of 331 b. C, closes with the pathetic scene in 
which Alexander threw his own cloak over the body of 
Darius (b. c. 330). 




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PART VII. 

GREECE AND MACEDONIA. 

FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES TO THE ROMAN CONQUEST IN 146 B. C. 



CHAPTER 1. 

Legendary or Traditional History of Greece. 

Hellas. — The Greeks called their land Hellas, and them- 
selves Hellenes. It is from the Romans that we have derived 
the names of Greece and Greeks ; though why the Romans, 
used different appellations from those employed by the 
natives, cannot be ascertained. The Greeks often restricted 
the word Hellas to Central Greece, and sometimes extended 
it to the abode of all the Hellenes, wherever settled. Origi- 
nally Hellas signified only a small district in Thessaly, the 
primitive seat of the Hellenes. 

Geographical Sketch. — Ancient Greece was divided 
into Northern, Central, and Southern Greece. Northern 
Greece comprised Epirus and Thessaly. Central Greece 
embraced Doris, Phocis, Locris, Bceotia, Attica, Megaris, 
Ozolian Locris, /Etolia, and Acarnania. Of Southern Greece, 
or Peloponnesus (the island of Pelops), now Moj'ea, the chief 
divisions were Arcadia in the centre, Achaia, Argolis, Laconia, 
Messenia, and Elis. 

The most important Grecian islands were : Eubce, along 
the coasts of Bceotia and Attica ; the groups of the Cyclades, 
lying around Delos, and of the Sporades, near the Asiatic 
coast ; Crete and Rhodes ; Salamis and ^Egina ; and, in the 
Ionian sea, Corcyra, Cephallenia, Ithaca, Zacynthus, and 
Cythera. 

191 



192 



GREECE. Chapt. I. 



Then were, besides, many Grecian cities in Asia Minor, 
Italy, and Sicily. Massalia also, now Marseilles, and Cyrene, 
on the African coast, were Grecian colonies. 

Legendary character of early Grecian History. 
Not till the epoch of the first recorded Olympiad, 776 B. c, 
did the Greeks use writing to perpetuate the memory of 
events. Whilst, therefore, the beautiful legends woven by 
poets round their early heroes' lives and deeds, may contain 
a kernel of historical truth, yet we have no means whatever 
of distinguishing that truth from its subsequent embellish- 
ment. But since the Greeks themselves accepted those 
legends as history, and this belief moulded their thought, 
their feelings, and their conduct, they must not be passed 
over entirely. Only the reader should bear in mind that 
what is here stated down to B. C 776, and even for two 
centuries afterwards, is either purely legendary, or unsup- 
ported by irrefragable testimony. One point, however, is 
certain : the language of the Greeks leaves us no doubt as 
to the origin of the people themselves. They were a branch 
of the Aryan race, or Indo-European family of nations. 

Pelasgia and the Pelasgi. — The primitive name of 
Greece is said to have been Pelasgia, and the Pelasgi were 
believed by the Greeks themselves to have been its first 
inhabitants. The Pelasgi were spread over the Italian, as well 
as the Grecian, peninsula. Hence their language formed the 
basis of the Latin, as well as of the Greek tongue. The 
Pelasgi were not mere barbarians. They are represented as 
leading a pastoral life, tilling the ground, and dwelling in 
walled cities. A peculiar architecture, called Cyclopean from 
the huge masses of stone of which the walls were built, is 
attributed to the Pelasgi. 

It was, indeed, a general belief among the Greeks, that the 
Pelasgi were reclaimed from barbarism by strangers from 
Egypt or Asia, who settled in the country, and introduced 
among the rude inhabitants the first elements of civilization. 
But this belief owed its origin to the philosophical specula- 
tions of a later age, which loved to represent an imaginary 
progress of society from the time when men fed on acorns 
and ran wild in woods, to the time when they became united 
into political communities and owned the supremacy of law 
and reason. Even admitting that Cadmus, Cecrops, and 
Danaus were real personages, and the true founders of 
Thebes, Athens, aad Argos, we are not to believe that the 



LEGENDARY HISTORY. 



193 



Pelasgi were indebted to them for the arts of civilized life, for 
the institution of marriage, and the introduction of religious 
rites and ceremonies. 

The Hellenes: ^Eolians and Ach^eans, IoniAns 
and Dorians. — Towards 1600 b. a, another branch of the 
Pelasgic family, the vigorous Hellenes, poured into the penin- 
sula from the north, and gradually gained a dominant influence 
over the first settlers. The Hellenes seem to have been 
originally divided into two tribes — the Cohans, at first the 
most widely diffused ; and the Achaeans, who appear in the 
latter part of the Heroic age as the most warlike of the 
Grecian races, occupying both the original abode of the 
Hellenes in Thessaly, and also the great cities of Argos, 
Mycenae, and Sparta, in Peloponnesus. Such was the celeb- 
rity of the race, that Homer frequently gives their name to 
the whole body of the Greeks. In process of time, two other 
tribes destined to be the leading races in Greece — the 
lonians and Dorians — grew into importance; and thus were 
constituted the four principal groups of the Hellenic people. 
These groups were themselves divided into a large number 
of small states, each under its own chief, the independent 
sovereignty of separate cities being a fundamental notion in 
the Greek mind. — According to the popular legend, the com- 
mon ancestor of all the Greeks was Hellen, the son of Deuca- 
lion (our Noah) and Pyrrha. Hellen had three sons, Dorus, 
Xuthus, and jEolus, — the first and the last, fathers of the 
Dorians and Cohans, whilst the children of Xuthus, Ion and 
Achaeus, became the progenitors of the lonians and Achse- 
ans. Such imaginary personages, whose existence is thus 
presupposed to account for certain names of tribes or races, 
are called heroes epo?iymi. It was a general practice in 
antiquity to invent fictitious persons, for the purpose of 
explaining names of which the origin was buried in obscurity. 

The Heroic Age. — The heroic age comprised the time 
which elapsed between the first appearance of the Hellenes 
in Thessaly and the return of the Grecian warriors from 
Troy. During this period were thought to have lived 
extraordinary men, gifted with superhuman strength and 
indomitable courage, such as Hercules, the national hero of 
Greece ; Theseus,"the hero of Attica, who united its twelve 
independent communities into one political body; Minos, 
king of Crete, the principal founder of Grecian law and 
civilization; Perseus, Meleager, Jason, and a host of others 

17 



194 



GREECE. Chapt. I. 



so much celebrated by the poets. Their chief exploits con- 
sisted in delivering the country from wild beasts, or from 
pirates and banditti. For these exertions grateful posterity 
not only praised them as heroes, but even honored them as 
demi-gods. Whether they were real persons, can neither be 
affirmed nor denied. The two most celebrated legends of 
the heroic age are the Voyage of the Argonauts in search of 
the golden fleece, and the expedition against Troy. Of the 
latter, as related in Homer's Iliad, it will be proper to give 
some details. 

The Trojan War (? 1194-1184). — Paris, son of Priam, 
king of Ilium or Troy, abused the hospitality of Menelaus, 
king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, the most 
beautiful woman of the age. Responding to the call of 
the offended husband, all the Grecian princes assemble in 
arms, elect his brother Agamemnon, king of Mycenae, leader 
of the expedition, and sail across the ^Egean in nearly 1200 
ships to recover the faithless fair one. Several of the con- 
federate heroes excel Agamemnon in fame. Among them 
Achilles, chief of the Thessalian Myrmidons, stands pre- 
eminent in strength, beauty, and valor; while Ulysses, king of 
Ithaca, surpasses all the rest in the mental qualities of counsel, 
subtilty, and eloquence. Thus, through opposite endow- 
ments, these two heroes form the centre of the group. Next 
to them, we observe the aged Nestor, king of Pylus, distin- 
guished for his wisdom and experience ; the valiant Diomedes ; 
the Telamonian Ajax, inferior only to Achilles in fighting 
power; and, lastly, Idomeneus of Crete, a grandson to Minos. 
Among the Trojans, Hector, one of the sons of Priam, is most 
distinguished for heroic qualities, and forms a striking con- 
trast to his handsome but effeminate brother Paris. Next 
to Hector in valor stands ^Eneas, son of Anchises and 
Aphrodite (Venus). Even the gods take part in the contest, 
encouraging favorite heroes, and sometimes fighting by their 
side or in their stead. 

It is not till the tenth year of the war that Ilium yields to 
the inevitable decree of fate, and it is this year which forms 
the subject of the Iliad. Achilles, offended by Agamemnon, 
keeps within his tent. His absence from the field enables 
Hector to drive the Greeks back into their camp. The 
Trojans are already setting fire to the Grecian ships, when 
Achilles gives his armor to his friend Patroclus, and allows 
him to charge at the head of the Myrmidons. Patroclus 



HEROIC AGE. 



195 



Repulses the enemy from the ships, but falls under the spear 
of Hector. Burning to avenge his friend, Achilles appears 
again in the field ; and, although he is aware that his own 
death must speedily follow that of the Trojan hero, he slays 
him in single combat 

The Iliad closes with the burial of Hector. The death of 
Achilles and the capture of Troy were related in later poems. 
After fresh victories over Penthesilea, queen of the Amazons, 
and Memnon, king of Ethiopia, Achilles perishes by an 
arrow shot by the unwarlike Paris, but directed by the hand 
of Apollo. Ulysses now steps into the foreground, and be- 
comes the real conqueror of Troy. By his advice a wooden 
horse is built, in whose flanks he and other heroes conceal 
themselves. The infatuated Trojans admit the horse within 
their walls. In the dead of night, the Greeks rush out, and 
open the gates to their comrades. Ilium is delivered over 
to the sword, and its glory sinks in ashes. 

The return of the Grecian leaders from Troy forms another 
series of poetical legends. Agamemnon is murdered on his 
arrival at Mycenae, by his wife Clytemnesta and her para- 
mour vEgisthus. Diomedes, who also finds his house de- 
filed, is driven from Argos, and settles in Italy. Ulysses, 
after the ten years' wanderings which form the subject of the 
Odyssey and a twenty years' absence from home, at last 
reaches his beloved Ithaca, where he slays the numerous 
suitors who devoured his substance, and contended for the 
hand of his wife Penelope, 

Homer and the Homeric Poems. — All the ancients re- 
garded the Iliad and the Odyssey as the productions of 
Homer. To the Greeks, throughout the flourishing period 
of their literature, these wonderful poems, which are still un- 
rivalled among works of their class, were the recognized 
standard of early history and mythology. Of their author, 
assuming Homer to be such, this alone seems probable, that 
he was an Asiatic Greek. Seven cities laid claim to his birth; 
and most of them had legends to tell concerning his roman- 
tic parentage, his alleged blindness, and his life of an itine- 
rant bard acquainted with poverty and sorrow. The different 
epochs assigned to his birth offer a diversity of nearly 500 
years. The date which has'found most favor is that of Her- 
odotus, who assumed that Homer lived 400 years before 
himself or about 850 B. c. 

It is supposed that the Iliad and the Odyssey were not 



I9 6 GREECE. Chapt. I. 

originally committed to writing. Homer, and after him his 
faithful disciples first, and next the Rhapsodists or profes- 
sional reciters, travelled from town to town, singing or re- 
citing them either in short fragments before private com- 
panies, or in their entirety at public festivals. In course of 
time, copies of the whole but chiefly of separate portions, or 
single rhapsodies, as they were called, came to be circulated 
among the Greeks. But with the multiplication of copies, 
the variations also of the several texts increased ; and this 
led to measures for establishing a standard edition of the na- 
tional poet. To Pisistratus is ascribed the great merit of 
collecting and arranging the poems in their present form. 

The Homeric Picture of Life and Manners. — 
It may be assumed that the Homeric account of the Trojan 
war was based upon historical facts. But, although even 
this cannot be proved beyond the possibility of a denial, and 
the Homeric poems can still less be received as a record 
of historical persons and events, yet they present an invalu- 
able picture of real institutions and manners. Homer lived 
in an age in which antiquarian research was unknown ; his 
poems were addressed to unlettered hearers, and any de- 
scription of life and manners altogether foreign to theirs 
would have proved both unintelligible and uninteresting. 
His descriptions, moreover, have an artless simplicity which 
shows them to be pictures from real life. 

Homeric Polity. — The Homeric poems exhibit Greece 
as parcelled into a number of independent states, each 
governed by its own king — a man of superior personal ex- 
cellence, a sort of patriarch, who is the general, judge, and 
priest of his people, and to whom they 100k up with rever- 
ence as a being of divine descent ; whose authority is re- 
strained by no positive law, but is somewhat limited by the 
Boule, or council of chiefs, and the Agora, or general as- 
sembly of freemen. 

Prevailing Simplicity — Hospitality. — Great sim- 
plicity of manners prevail. The kings and nobles, though 
raised far above the rest of the community in honor, power, 
and wealth, do not disdain to engage in manual labor. They 
partake of the same food, which is of the simplest kind, and 
eat at the same table, with their subjects. Their wives and 
daughters, in like manner, employ themselves in weaving, 
spinning, embroidery, and in the discharge of all the various 
household duties. They are allowed greater liberty, and 



HEROIC AGE. 1 97 

occupy a station of greater dignity and influence in the fam- 
ily, than they afterwards possessed in republican Greece. A 
marked feature of the age is hospitality. The stranger is 
sure of welcome; and the host dees not inquire his name 
nor the object of his journey, till he has placed before him 
his best cheer. 

Freemen and Slaves. — Among the freemen, we find 
certain professional persons whose acquirements and knowl- 
edge raised them above their class, and procured for them 
the respect of the nobles. Such were the seer, the bard, the 
herald, and likewise the smith and the carpenter, since in 
that age a knowledge of the mechanical arts was confined to 
a few. 

Slavery was not so prevalent as it afterwards became, and 
it appears in a less odious aspect. The nobles alone pos- 
sessed slaves, and they treated them with a degree of kind- 
ness which frequently secured for the masters their affection- 
ate attachment. 

Dark Side of the Homeric Society. — Side by side 
with these bright features, are others of the most repulsive 
character. The [ rotection of law is practically unknown ; 
the weaker, as a matter of course, is plundered and mal- 
treated by his stronger neighbor ; piracy is an honorable oc- 
cupation ; homicides are of frequent occurence, and war is 
conducted with the most ferocious cruelty. In battle, the 
chiefs are the only important combatants ; they are mounted 
in war- chariots drawn by two horses, and carry two spears, 
a long sword, and a short dagger. Their person is protected 
by shield, helmet, breast-plate, and greaves, In the wars, 
as in the political system, of the heroic age, the chiefs are 
everything and the people nothing. Of coined money and 
writing the Homeric poems make no mention. 

Advanced State of Civilization. — Of the early 
progress made by the Greeks in literature, the very poems 
of Homer are the best proof. At the same time they bear 
witness to the advanced state of many of the arts which con- 
tribute to the comfort and refinement of life. The houses of 
the nobles are represented as glittering with gold, silver, and 
bronze ; . the nobles are clothed in the finest products of the 
Sidonian loom ; they travel in chariots drawn by high-bred 
steeds, and navigate the sea in fifty-oared galleys. Property 
is transmitted from father to son ; agriculture is extensively 
practised, and vineyards carefully cultivated. The remains, 



19$ GREECE. Chapt. I. 

lately exhumed from the ruins of Mycenae and Tyrins by 
Dr. Schliemann, whether they belong merely to the Homer- 
ic, or should be referred to Pelasgic times, make it evident 
that no mean knowledge of statuary, drawing, designing, and 
painting, as well as of architecture, existed in Greece at a 
very early period. 

Dorian Occupation of Peloponnesus. — The Dorians 
had no share in the glories of the heroic age. Their name 
does not occur in the Iliad ; they are only once mentioned in 
the Odyssey, and there merely as one of the many tribes of 
Crete. Their first settlement in Greece was the narrow 
mountainous district of Doris, between Thessaly, Locris, and 
Phocis. But, by the commencement of the historical period 
in the first Olympiad, we find them in possession of most of 
Peloponnesus with flourishing kingdoms at Argos, Corinth, 
Sparta, and elsewhere. As both their migration from Doris, 
and their destruction of the ancient Achaean monarchies of 
Peloponnesus, belong to a period long antecedent to all his- 
torical records, neither the time nor the manner thereof can 
be known with certainty. The following is a brief summary 
of the legends referring to the Dorian conquest of Pelopon- 
nesus. This celebrated event is known in mythical accounts 
as the Return of the Heraclidae. 

The Return of the Heraclidje. — Towards b. c. 
i 104, or eighty years after the destruction of Troy, three 
great-grandsons of Hyllus, son of Hercules — Temenus, 
Cresphontes, and Aristodemus — wishing to recover their 
birthright, of which their sire had been deprived by Eurys- 
theus, led the Dorians to the conquest of Peloponnesus. 
Warned by an oracle not to enter the peninsula by the 
Isthmus of Corinth, with the help of the Italians they built 
a fleet at Naupactus ; and, crossing over the gulf in safety, 
marched against Tisamenus, son of Orestes, then the most 
powerful monarch in Peloponnesus. A single battle decided 
the contest. The defeated Tisamenus retired with a portion 
of his Achaean subjects to the northern coast of Peloponne- 
sus, then occupied by Ionians, but since called Achaia after 
the new settlers, the Ionians withdrawing into Attica. Of 
the Peloponnesian towns attacked by the Dorians, only Helos 
and Corinth, according to the legend, opposed a serious re- 
sistance. Corinth was not conquered till the next generation. 
The inhabitants of Helos, in punishment of their stubborn de- 
fence, were reduced to slavery, thus giving rise to the class 



EARLY GREEK COLONIES. 



199 



of slaves, or serfs, called Helots. The result of the invasion 
was the establishment of Dorian kingdoms in Messenia, La- 
conia, and Argolis. 

Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. — Closely connected 
in the legends with the Dorian occupation of Peloponnesus, 




was the foundation of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, 
many of the dispossessed inhabitants being forthwith com- 
pelled by the invaders to seek new habitations elsewhere. 



£0C GREECE. Chapt. II. 

But it is probable that the migration from Greece to the 
Asiatic continent went on for several generations. All that 
we know for certain, however, is the existence in Asia Minor, 
at the beginning of the historical period, of Greek cities, 
which were spread over the western coast, from the Propon- 
tis on the north to Lycia on the south. These cities were 
divided among the three great races of ./Eolians, Ionians, 
and Dorians — the ^Eolians occupying the northern portion 
of the coast, together with the islands of Lesbos and Tene- 
dos ; the Ionians, the central part, with the islands of Chios, 
Samos, and the Cyclades ; and the Dorians, the south-west- 
ern corner, with the islands of Cos and Rhodes. 

Rise of Grecian Literature. — Chief among the 
Greek cities on the Asiatic coast were Phocea, Smyrna, 
Clazomense, Ephesus, Miletus, and Halicarnassus. Grecian 
literature took its rise in the ^Eolic and Ionic colonies of 
Asia Minor. Homer was probably a native of Smyrna. 
The Lyric poets Sappho and Alcaeus were born in the island 
of Lesbos ; the philosopher Thales, at Miletus ; and Herod- 
otus, at Halicarnassus. — This dispersion of the Grecian 
tribes accounts for those differences of forms in the mother 
tongue, which are known as the Attic, Ionic, Doric, and 
^Eolic dialects. 



CHAPTER II. 

Religion and National Games of the Greeks. 

Ties which bound together the Grecian World. 
Greece was divided into an indefinite number of small 
independent states. Thus, for instance, in each of the 
territories described under the general names of Arcadia, 
Bceotia, Phocis, and Locris, were many political communities 
independent of one another. Indeed every separate city oi 
Greece usually had its own independent government. The 
only supreme authority which a Greek recognized, was to 
be found within his own city walls. Yet, amidst this politi- 
cal disunion and multiplicity of states, there were not 
wanting moral ties which bound the Greeks together as one 



« 
RELIGION. 20 1 

people. These were community of blood and language, 
community of religious rites and festivals, community of 
manners and character. The belief of the Greeks in their 
common descent from Hellen has already been adverted to ; 
and it certainly was their most powerful bond of union. 
Next to this was the use of a common language, and their 
extreme repugnance to those using a tongue different from 
their own. Men and cities that were not Grecians, were by 
them reckoned as barbarian. 

Grecian Deities. — The second bond of union was a 
community of religious rites and festivals. From the earliest 
times, the Greeks appear to have worshipped the same dei- 
ties. The chief of these were: Zeus (Jupiter or Jove), the 
god of Olympus and the principal ruler of the earth ; Nep- 
tune, the god of the sea; Pluto, the god of Tartarus ; Mars, 
the god of war ; Apollo, the god of poetry ; Hermes (Mer- 
curius), the god of eloquence ; Hera (Juno), Aphrodite 
(Venus), and Athene (Minerva). They had, besides, a mul- 
titude of demi-gods, the heroes of their early times. To all 
these, and, under their name, to personified vices, and to the 
demon himself, the author of so deplorable a superstition, 
they erected altars, offered sacrifice, and paid adoration. In 
their honor, too, they celebrated festivals, among the most 
famous of which were those of Ceres at Eleusis, and of Dio- 
nysius (Bacchus) at Athens. Drunkenness and debauchery 
not unfrequently disgraced those ceremonies and festivities. 

The Delphic Oracle. — A marked feature of Grecian 
religious belief was an implicit confidence in oracles. It was 
indeed a universal practice to undertake no matter of impor- 
tance without first asking the advice of the gods. There were 
many sacred spots renowned for their oracles ; but the most 
frequented of all was that of Apollo, at Delphi. In the centre 
of the temple there was a small opening in the ground, from 
which it was said that a certain vapor ascended. Whenever 
the oracle was to be consulted, a virgin priestess, called 
Pythia, took her seat upon a tripod, which was placed over 
the chasm. The ascending vapor affected her brain, her 
hair stood erect, her look was ghastly, she foamed at the 
mouth, her whole body became agitated by violent convul- 
sions. In that state she utt red half- articulated words, which 
were believed to be the answer of Apollo to his worshippers. 
These utterances the attendant priests carefully collected 
and arranged, so as to elicit a meaning. The oracles, in 



202 GREECE. Chapt. II. 

their final shape, were delivered in the form of hexameter 
verse. Most of them, at least those which referred to future 
events, were equivocal or obscure.* Yet the credit of the 
oracle continued unimpaired long after the fall of Grecian 
independence. 

The Amphictyonic Council.-— While the Greeks wor- 
shipped the same gods, separate communities paid special 
reverence to particular deities ; and not unfrequently a certain 
number of towns entered into an association for the periodical 
celebration of certain religious rites in honor of a common 
patron. Such associations went under the name of Amphic- 
tyony^ from a word signifying those dwelling round or nearf, 
because they usually consisted of neighboring tribes or cities, 
that were accustomed to meet at fixed times to offer sacrifices 
to the god of a particular temple, the common property of 
all. There were many religious associations of this kind in 
Greece. But one of them, from the superior wealth and 
grandeur of the Delphian temple, of which it was the 
appointed guardian, came to be called by excellence The 
Amphictyonic Council This celebrated assembly consisted 
of sacred deputies, called Amphictyons, who were sent from 
twelve tribes, and who held two meetings every year, one in 
the spring at the Delphic temple of Apollo, and the other in 
the autumn at the temple of Ceres near Thermopylae. The 
Amphictyonic Council was of great antiquity. The oath 
taken by its members, ran thus : "We will not destroy any 
Amyhictyonic town, nor cut it off from running water in war 
or peace. If any one shall do so, we will march against him 

" :ic Thus, when Croesus, king of Lydia, consulted the oracle of. 
Delphi about the result of his intended war against Cyrus, he 
received for answer, tnat, if he were to cross the river Halys, he 
would ruin a great empire : 

Croesus, Halym penetrans, magnani subvertet opum vim. 
Which empire? his own or that of Cyrus? — This was left to be 
guessed by Croesus himself. He naturally gave to the oracle the 
construction most favorable to his wishes ; but he was conquered, 
and the kingdom of Lydia was overthrown. Still, even in this 
case, the assertion was right, since a great empire was really 
destroyed. 

The same may be said of the god's answer to Pyrrhus : 

Aio te, JEacides, Romano s vincere posse, 

which signifies either that Pyrrhus might conquer ? the Romans ; or 
the Romans, Pyrrhus. 
|Not from the mythical hero Amphictyon, its supposed founder. 



NATIONAL GAMES. j 

and destroy his city. If any one shall plunder the property 
of the god, or shall be cognizant thereof, or shall tald 
treacherous counsel against the things in his temple at Delphi, 
we will punish him with foot and hand and voice and by 
every means in our power." The duties of the Council, as 
appears from this oath, were restricted to the protection both 
of the •members of the league and of the temple. Though 
its members occasionally took a larger view of their functions, 
it never rose to the dignity of a national congress entrusted 
with the interests of all Greece. 

The Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian 
Games.— Of all the ties which bound the Greeks together, 
and kept alive a feeling of their common origin, the four great 
festivals of the Olympic, Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian 
games were not the least. These games were open to all 
persons who could prove their Hellenic blood, and were 
frequented by spectators from all parts of the Grecian world. 
The most ancient, as well as the most famous of these festivals, 
was that celebrated at Olympia, in Elis, near an ancient temple 
of the Olympian Jove. It took place at the end of every 
four years* ; and, during the month in which it occurred, 
all hostilities were suspended throughout Greece. At first, 
the festival was confined to a single day ; and the games 
consisted of nothing more than a match of runners in the 
stadium. In course of time, so many other contests were 
introduced that the games occupied five days. They com- 
prised various trials of strength and skill, such as wrestling, 
boxing, the pancratium (boxing and wrestling combined), 
and the complicated pentathlum (including jumping, running, 
the quoit, the javelin, and wrestling), but no combats with 
any kind of weapons. There were also horse races and 
chariot-races. The chariot-race, with four fail-grown horses, 
became one of the most popular of the matches. 

The only prize given to the conqueror was a garland of 
wild olive. But this was valued as one of the dearest 
distinctions in life. To have his name proclaimed as victor 
before assembled Hellas, was an object of ambition with the 
noblest and wealthiest of the Greeks. Such a person was 

*The interval between two celebrations was called an Olympiad. 
The Greek Olympic era began with b. c. 776, the year in which the 
festival, whose origin is lost in mythical ages, is said to have been 
revived by Iphitus, king of Elis, and Lycurgus, the Spartan legis- 
lator. 



204 GREECE. Chapt. III. 

coDsidered to have conferred everlasting glory upon his 
family, and was rewarded by his fellow - citizens with 
distinguished honors. 

During the sixth century before the Christian era, the three 
other festivals of the Pythian, Nemean, and Isthmian games, 
which were at first only local, became open to the whole 
nation. The Pythian, instituted by the Amphictyons in honor 
of Apollo, were celebrated, near Delphi, in every third 
Olympic year ; the Nemean, in honor of the Nemean Jove, 
and the Isthmian, in honor of Neptune, occurred once in two 
years. Besides the races and matches in gymnastics, they 
consisted also of contests in music and poetry. 

The large concourse of persons from every part of the 
Grecian world for the national games, afforded to the mer- 
chant opportunities for traffic, and to the artist and the literary 
man, the best means of making their productions known. 
During the games, a busy commerce was carried on ; and, 
in a spacious hall appropriated for the purpose, the poets, 
philosophers, and historians, were accustomed to read their 
most recent compositions. 

Grecian Characteristics. — It is pleasant to notice the 
absence in Greece of those dark features which disgraced so 
many other nations of antiquity. Absolute despotism, human 
sacrifices, polygamy, and deliberate mutilation of the person 
as a punishment, are not found in any city of Greece in the 
historical times. 



CHAPTER III. 

Sparta becomes the Dominant Power in Peloponnesus. 

Scarcity of Historical Records down to 500 b. c. — 
From the Return of the Heraclidae, which forms the con- 
clusion of the Mythical Age, to the commencement of 
authentic Grecian history in the first Olympiad, there is an 
interval of nearly 300 years. Of this long period we have 
scarcely any record. Nor is our knowledge of the years 
immediately following the first Olympiad very abundant, 
consisting, as it does, of only a few solitary facts which have 
little or no connection with one another. 



SPARTA. 



205 



Ancient Preeminence of Argos. — Among the Dorian 
kingdoms in Peloponnesus, Argos first held and long retained 
an incontested preeminence. She was the head of a power- 
ful confederacy of Dorian states — Cleonse, Sicyon, Epidaurus, 
Trcezen, ^Eglna, and others — most of which were her own 
colonies. The common worship of Apollo Pythseus kept 
them united. Even Corinth was held in temporary subjection 
by Argos. To the last of her great kings, Phidon, who 
flourished about the 8th Olympiad, or 747 b. c, is referred 
the introduction into Greece of a copper and a silver coinage, 
and also of a scale of weights and measures. 

Sparta before Lycurgus. — At the time of the Dorian 
conquest, Eurysthenes and Procles, twin sons of Aristode- 
mus, one of the Heraclidae, were associated in the throne of 
Sparta. Their descendants, forming two parallel dynasties, 
held after them the royal dignity. But, whether it was owing 
to this double rule, or otherwise, the kingdom did not 
prosper. Disturbances were frequent, and confusion pre- 
vailed, until the reforms attributed to Lycurgus gradually 
raised Sparta to preeminence first in Peloponnesus, and after- 
wards in Greece. 

Lycurgus (? b. c. 890-770).— Of the several discrepant 
accounts, none of them contemporary, which have come 
down to us concerning Lycurgus, the most probable places 
him between 890 — 770 B. c, and makes him a younger 
brother of the Spartan king Polydectes. Polydectes died, 
leaving his queen with child. The ambitious woman offered 
to destroy her offspring, if Lycurgus would share the throne 
with her. He refused, and had her son acknowledged king 
under the name of Charilaus. The queen-mother, however, 
sought to be revenged, and Lycurgus chose to go into 
voluntary exile. He visited Crete, Ionia, Egypt, and perhaps 
also Iberia, Libya, and even India, studying their institutions 
and conversing with their sages. On his return he found his 
fellow-citizens willing to entrust him with the care of framing 
a system of laws and regulations, which might remedy the 
evils under which Sparta had long been suffering. His 
reforms, however, were not carried into effect without violent 
opposition ; but he finally triumphed over all obstacles. His 
last act was to sacrifice himself for the welfare of his country. 
Having obtained from the people a solemn oath to make no 
alterations in his laws before his return, he quitted Sparta, 
and was never afterwards heard of. — His grateful countrymen 

18 



206 GREECE. Chapt. III. 

honored him with a temple, and worshipped him with annual 
sacrifices down to the latest times. 

Papulation of Laconia : Spartans, Periceci, and 
Helots. — The population of Laconia comprised three classes 
of people : the Spartans, or ruling class, who lived in Sparta 
itself, and who alone were eligible to honors and public offices ; 
the periceci (dwellers around the city), or free inhabitants of 
the country-towns and villages, possessors of the poorer 
lands, and deprived of the franchise ; lastly, the Helots, or 
slave population. The Spartans were the descendants of the 
leading Dorian conquerors; the periceci descended partly 
from the old Achaean inhabitants, and partly from Dorians 
who had not been admitted to the full privileges of the ruling 
class. The periceci fought in the Spartan armies, as heavy- 
armed soldiers ; they had the exclusive possession of the 
commerce and manufactures of the country ; and, along with 
the Spartans themselves, they were ranked as Laconians or 
Lacedaemonians. The Helots were serfs bound to the soil, 
which they tilled for the benefit of the Spartan proprietors. 
Like the villains of* the Middle Ages, they had homes of 
their own, and appear never to have been sold. They ac- 
companied the Spartans to the field as light-armed troops. 
The Helots were of pure Hellenic blood, and chiefly the 
descendants of the old inhabitants who had offered the most 
resistance to the Dorians. They wore a peculiar dress — a 
leather cap and a sheepskin — to distinguish them from the 
rest of the population; and, when they multiplied to an 
alarming extent, a stop was put to their increase by legalized 
assassination. It is said they were often forced to make 
themselves drunk as a warning to the Spartan youth. 

The Spartan Government. — The Spartan government 
consisted of two kings, a senate, a popular assembly, and an 
executive directory of five men called the ephors. The two 
kings, in historical times, came to be merely the nominal 
chiefs of the state, their power being limited to the presidency 
of the senate, the command of armies, and the functions of 
the high-priesthood, which they discharged by offering 
every month sacrifices to Jove on behalf of the people. The 
members of the senate, twenty-eight in number, exclusive of 
the two kings, could not be ]ess than 60 years of age. They 
held office for life, and they discussed and prepared all 
measures which were to be brought before the popular 
assembly. Their most important function was to sit in 



SPARTA. 



SO/ 



judgment in all cases affecting the life of a Spartan citizen. 
The popular assembly wielded little influence, and appears 
to have been usually summoned only as a matter of form for 
the election of certain magistrates, for passing laws, and for 
determining upon peace or war. The ephors, who were 
annually elected from the general body of Spartan citizens, 
and liad at first little power, became in the end the real 
rulers of the state. To them belonged the absolute, uncon- 
trolled management of all internal and external affairs. They 
dismissed, fined, or imprisoned subordinate magistrates at 
their pleasure; they even arrested the kings, and either 
imposed fines on them, or brought them to trial before the 
senate. In what degree the reforms of Lycurgus affected the 
political constitution of Sparta, is not known. His legisla- 
tion had reference chiefly to the discipline and education of 
the citizens. 

Aim of Lycurgus. — The Spartans were but a handful of 
men — probably never more than 9000— -in possession of a 
country which they could only retain by the sword. The 
great aim, therefore, of lycurgus was to make them a nation of 
professional soldiers, whose superior hardihood, bravery, and 
discipline, would enable them to maintain their ascendency 
over their subjects. Hence most of his regulations regarded 
the rearing and education of youth. 

Training of the Spartan Youth. — The education of 
children, at Sparta, was the business of the state. Every 
child, after birth, was examined by the elders; and, if deemed 
deformed and weakly, and unfit for a future life of labor and 
fatigue, was exposed to perish on Mount Taygetus. At the 
age of seven, the Spartan boys began to be taught all the 
gymnastic games which would give vigor and strength to the 
body, and all the exercises and movements required for the 
Lacedaemonian soldiers in the field. They were., at the same 
time, subjected to severe bodily discipline, being forced to go 
barefoot' to lie on beds made of reeds, to wear the same gar- 
ment winter and summer, to endure heat and cold, hunger 
and thirst. On the occasion of a certain festival in honor of 
Artemis (Diana), to inure them to bodily pain, they were 
whipped till their blood flowed on the altar. They were en- 
couraged to steal whatever food they could find ; but, if taken 
in the act, were punished for want of dexterity. Plutarch tells 
us of a boy, who, having stolen a fox and hid it under his 
garment, chose rather to let it tear out his very bowels than 



20 8 GREECE. Chapt. III. 

be detected in the theft. The Spartan youth was taught to 
sing and play on the lyre ; but the strains which he learned, 
were either martial songs or hymns to the gods. With this 
ended his literary education. Literature, eloquence, and phi- 
losophy he was made to despise, as unworthy of a warrior. 

The Spartan Citizen. — A Spartan was not considered 
to have reached the full age of manhood, until he had com- 
pleted his 30th year. He was then allowed to marry, to take 
part in the public assembly, and was eligible to the offices 
of the state. But he still continued under the public disci- 
pline, fed at the public messes, slept in the public barracks, 
and could only visit his home occasionally, and, as it were, by 
stealth. He was continually engaged on state duties, as 
drills, actual warfare, superintendence and training of the 
boys, and had no time left for commerce, agriculture, or 
other such occupation. It was not till he had reached his 
6othyear that he was released from the public discipline and 
from military service. 

The Public Mess is said to have been instituted by 
Lycurgus to prevent all indulgence of the appetite. Public 
tables were provided, at which every male citizen was obliged 
to take his meals. Each table accommodated 15 persons, 
who formed a separate mess, into which no new member 
was admitted, except by the unanimous consent of the whole 
company. Each sent monthly to the common stock a 
specified quantity of barley-meal, wine, cheese, and figs, and 
a little money to buy flesh and fish. No distinction of any 
kind was allowed at the frugal meals. Meat was only eaten 
occasionally. The tyrant Dionysius found the black broth 
which was one of the principal dishes, very unpalatable. " No 
wonder," said the cook; "it wanted the necessary seasoning 
of fatigue and hunger." When a Spartan became too poor 
for contributing his portion to the public mess, he forfeited 
his full citizenship ; but recovered it, so soon as he could 
again contribute the allotted amount. 

The Spartan Women in their earlier years were also 
subjected to rigorous training, intended to fit them to give 
to the state a vigorous race of citizens. At the age of 
twenty, a Spartan girl usually married, and she was no 
longer subject to the public discipline. The Spartan women 
took a lively interest in the glory and welfare of their native 
land, and were animated by a lofty spirit of patriotism. 
" Return with your shield, or upon it," was the ordinary 



SPARTA. 



269 



injunction of the parent to her son, when going to battle. 
After the defeat of Leuctra, the mothers of the slain con- 
gratulated one another, because their sons had done their 
duty, whereas the mothers of the survivors were inconsolable. 

Subjugation of Messenia.— The legislation of Lycur- 
gus tended to make the Spartans a nation of soldiers. Its 
effects, were soon felt. Thanks to her superior military 
discipline, Sparta soon became the undisputed mistress of 
two-thirds of Peloponnesus, and the most powerful of all 
Grecian states. Her first conquest was that of Messenia. Of 
the details of the struggle, which was both long and obstinate, 
we have no trustworthy account.* The Spartans seem to 
have been the aggressors. Lusting for the fertile territories 
of their neighbors, they silently prepared their forces ; and, 
without any formal declaration of war, they surprised the 
frontier fortress of Amphea, and put the inhabitants to the 
sword. For the first four years, however, they made little 
progress ; but, in the fifth, the Messenians, no longer able to 
oppose the invaders in the open field, withdrew to the forti- 
fied mountain of Ith5me. Here they kept the enemy at bay 
for 16 years, at the end of which time they were forced to 
give up the contest. Many of the inhabitants fled into 
Arcadia and Attica ; those who remained were reduced to 
the condition of Helots. 

Thirty-nine years later, aided by the Argives, Arcadians, 
Sicyonians, and Pisatans, the Messenians, under their heroic 
leader Aristomenes, rose against their oppressors. At first 
they were successful, and defeated the Lacedaemonians with 
great loss. But the latter, encouraged by the martial strains 
of the Athenian poet Tyrtaeus, in the third year of the war 
inflicted a signal defeat on the Messenians. Thereupon 
Aristomenes concentrated his forces in the mountain fortress 
of Ira. From this fortified post where he maintained himself 
eleven years, he would often sally forth and ravage Laconia 
with fire and sword. But one night the Spartans surprised 
Ira, while Aristomenes was disabled by a wound, and he 

*What we know of the Messenian war is taken from Pausanias, 
who lived in the second century of the Christian era, and who 
drew his narrative from the prose work of Myron, and from the 
epic poem of Rhianus. Both of these writers were separated 
from the events which they related by some 500 years, and proba- 
bly derived their materials from the stories current among the 
Messenians after ">heir restoration to their native land by Epami- 
nondas.. 



2IO GREECE. Chapt. IV. 

with difficulty effected his escape. Many of his followers, 
under the guidance of his sons, went to Rhegium, in Italy ; 
he ended his days in Rhodes. Henceforth, until the restora- 
tion of their independence by Epaminondas, in 369 B. C, the 
Messenians disappear from history. 

Conquest in Arcadia and Argos. — The conquest of 
Messenia was followed by the subjugation of the southern 
part of Arcadia. But the reduction of Tegea proved a most 
difficult task. For more than two centuries, its brave popu- 
lation defied the Spartan power. Nor were the Tegeatans 
reduced to slavery, like the Messenians. They retained 
their own city and territory, and only became dependent 
allies of Lacedsemon. 

Sparta's next exploit was the humbling of Argos. It was 
in the course of her struggle with Argos for the possession 
of Cynuria, that occurred the celebrated battle of the 600 
champions. The two nations agreed to decide the quarrel 
by a combat between 300 on either side. So fierce was the 
conflict, that only one Spartan and two Argives survived. 
The latter, supposing that all their opponents had been slain, 
hastened home with the news of the victory. But Othryades, 
the Spartan warrior, remained on the field, and despoiled 
the dead bodies of the enemy. Both parties claimed the 
victory, whereupon a general battle ensued, in which the 
Argives were defeated. From that time Sparta's preemin- 
ence in Peloponnesus became an accomplished fact; nor 
was there north of the Isthmus of Corinth any state whose 
power could compete with hers. 



CHAPTER IV. 
The Dawn of Democracy. 



Abolition of Royalty except in Sparta. — Sparta 
was the only state in Greece which continued to retain the 
kingly form of government during the brilliant period of 



THE DAWN OF DEMOCRACY. 21 1 

Grecian history. Elsewhere the reverential feeling 1 towards 
the king disappeared by degrees ; and, in the end, the subjects 
lost all belief in his divine right to their obedience. In this 
frame of mind, they would avail themselves either of the 
monarch's death or of some other fitting opportunity, to set 
aside the royal race ; and would elect for life, or for a number 
of years, some one of the nobles, to supply the place of the 
king. The new magistrates were at first chosen by the nobles 
alone, and from their own body ; and they were accountable 
only to them for their manner of governing. Thus the 
abolition of royalty was followed by an Oligarchy, or the 
government of the Few. 

Oligarchies overthrown by Despots. — Besides the 
nobles, or great landed proprietors, whose estates were cul- 
tivated by a rural and dependent population, there existed 
two other classes of freemen, the small farmers who tilled their 
fields with their own hands, and the artisans and traders 
residing in the towns. These two classes, as they increased 
in numbers, wealth, and intelligence, soon came to resent 
their exclusion from all share in the government. Not being 
yet strong enough to contend single-handed against the 
nobles, whose oppressive sway they hated, they began by 
lending their aid to some ambitious citizen for the overthrow 
of the oligarchy. The individual thus raised to the chief 
magistracy for a temporary period, would usually avail 
himself of his position to retain his dignity permanently. 
To such usurpers the Greeks gave the name of tyrants. 
From B. C. 650 to 500, there were few cities in the Grecian 
world which escaped this revolution. 

Character of the Despots. — The word tyrant, as used 
by the Greeks, signified simply an irresponsible ruler, or 
despot. But the government of most of the despots was 
oppressive and cruel. In many states, they were at first 
popular with the general body of the citizens, who had raised 
them to power and were glad to see the humiliation of their 
former masters. But discontent usually was not slow to arise, 
on which occasion the despot would surround himself with 
foreign mercenaries, exile his opponents or even put them to 
death, and would thus become a tyrant in the modern sense 
of the word. Some, however, used their power for the 
general good ; were enlightened patrons of literature and 
art ; embellished their cities, and protected commerce and 
industry. But even those who exercised their sovereignty 



2i2 GREECE. Chapt. IV. 

with moderation, were never able to retain their popularity. 
The assumption of irresponsible power by one man, had 
become intolerable to a Greek. He looked upon the assas- 
sination of a despot as a righteous and holy act. Hence few 
tyrants grew old in their government ; still fewer bequeathed 
their power to their sons. 

Rise of Democracy.— Many of the despots in Greece 
were put down by the Lacedaemonians; The Spartan govern- 
ment being essentially an oligarchy, though a royalty in 
name, the Spartans were always ready to lend their powerful 
aid to the support or the reestablishment of the government 
of the Few. But such interference for such an object, was 
very distasteful to the general body of freemen. The rule of 
the despot had broken down the distinction between them 
and the nobles ; and, upon the removal of the despot, they 
would not allow the nobles to resume their former privileges. 
The struggle, therefore, which was first between kings and 
nobles, and next between oligarchy and despot, was hence- 
forth between oligarchy and democracy. 

Megarian Revolutions. — As a specimen of the internal 
conflicts just referred to, we may instance the case of Megara. 
Theogenes made himself despot of that city about b. c. 630. 
He overthrew the oligarchy by espousing the popular cause, 
but could not permanently maintain himself in power. Upon 
his expulsion (b. c. 600), a violent struggle ensued between 
the oligarchy and the democracy. The popular party 
obtained the upper hand, and abused their victory. The 
poor entered the houses of the rich, and forced them to 
provide costly banquets. They confiscated the property of 
the nobles, and drove most of them into exile. They not 
only cancelled their debts, but obliged their aristocratic 
creditors to refund all the interest which had been paid. 
The expatriated nobles returned in arms, and restored the 
oligarchy. They were again expelled ; and it was not till 
after long struggles, that an oligarchical government was 
permanently established at Megara. — It is curious to notice 
how the Megarian poet Theognis, who lived in the midst of 
these convulsions, and was himself attached to the oligarchy, 
uses the term the good and the brave, the mean, the coward, 
or the bad, as representing respectively the nobles and the 
common people. His poems also bear witness to another 
social change, which he laments over : an aristocracy of 
wealth had begun to spring up in place of an aristocracy of 



. B. C. 683-500. ATHENS. ^j* 

birth, and intermarriages had taken place between the two 
parties in the state : 

"The bad or coward, that in wealth has striven, 
May match his offspring with the proudest race. 
Thus everything is mixed, noble and base." 



CHAPTER V. 

Athens before the Persian Wars. 

The Archonship is substituted to Royalty. — The 
history of Athens before the age of Solon is almost a blank. 
Attica is said to have been first divided into twelve 
independent communities, but was afterwards united into a 
single state with Athens as the seat of the concentrated 
monarchy. Codrus, who fell in resisting a Dorian invasion 
made from the recently conquered Peloponnesus, was the 
last king of Athens. In place of royalty, a chief magistracy, 
called archonship, was established, which was at first con- 
ferred for life, then for ten years only. Until about 700 B. c, 
the archonship continued to be bestowed on the descend- 
ants of Codrus. But the fourth decennial archon having 
been deposed for his cruelty, the family of Codrus forfeited 
their right ; and instead of a single chief magistrate, a board 
of nine archons was instituted, who were to be elected 
annually from the whole body of the Eupatrids y or nobles. 
The latter also kept to themselves all political rights and 
privileges, to the exclusion of the husbandmen and artisans, 
who formed the other two classes of the 'state. 

The Annual Archons (b. c. 683.) — The real history of 
Athens begins with the institution of the annual archons. 
Of these, the first was called The Archon; he was the 
president of the board, the protector of widows and orphans, 
and determined all disputes relating to the family. The 
second, or Basileus (the king), represented the ancient 
monarch in his capacity as high-priest of the nation. All 
cases respecting religion and homicide were brought before 
him. The third, or Polemarch (commander-in-chief), su- 
perintended the war department. He had jurisdiction in all 



214 



GREECE. ciiapt. V. 



disputes between citizens and strangers. The remaining 
six, called the Legislators, managed in common the other 
duties of the government, which wen: chiefly judicial. They 
were named legislators, not because they made the laws, hut 
because their particular sentences, in the absence of a written 
code, had the force of laws. 

The Senate of Areopagus. — Down to Solon, the 

:.< tiate of Areopagus was, with the archons, the only politi- 
cal power in the state. It received its name from its place 
of meeting, which was a rocky eminence opposite the Acro- 
polis, called the Hill of Ares (hill of Mars;. It was formed 
exclusively of ciipatrids y and all the archons became 
members of it at the expiration of their year of office. At 
one time, the senate of Areopagus was the most respectable 
body in the world. Such was its reputation for justice and 
sagacity, that the Romans referred to it certain questions 
too difficult for them to solve. All cases of willful murder 
were tried by the senate of Areopagus. To ascertain the 
truth was the sole object its members had in view. Hence 
the speakers who addressed them, were not allowed to appeal 
to their feelings by making use of exordium, digression, 
peroration, or the like oratorical artifices. 

The Legislation of Draco (b. c. 624). — The govern- 
ment of the ciipatrids, like most of the early oligarchies, 
seems to have been oppressive. In the absence of written 
laws, the archons possessed an arbitrary power, which they 
often abused in favor of their order, and to the injury of the 
general body of the citizens. The discontent of the latter, 
at last, rose to such a pitch that Draco was appointed to 
draw up a code of laws. But he probably did little more 
than reduce to writing the ordinances which had previously 
regulated his brother ciipatrids in their decision of cases. 
The most remarkable characteristic of his laws was their ex- 
treme severity, the penalty of death being affixed to all 
crimes alike — to petty thefts, for instance, as well as to sacri- 
lege and murder. Draco made no change to the existing 
political constitution. The people gained nothing by the 
written code; and civil dissentions prevailed as extensively 
as before. Matters, in the end, came to such a crisis that 
the ruling oligarchy, frightened by the threatening attitude 
of the poorer classes, invested Solon with unlimited power 
to make any changes he might consider beneficial to the 
state. 



B. C. 683-500. ATHENS. 21 5 

Solon (? 638-558) is one of the most remarkable men of 
ancient Greece. To him Athens owed {he foundation of her 
greatness. Though descended from the heroic Codrus, he 
possessed but limited means, and so was obliged to have 
recourse to trade to mend his fortune. He visited many 
parts pf Greece and. Asia as a merchant, and formed acquaint- 
ance with several of the most eminent men of his time. So 
great was his own reputation for prudence, judgment, and. 
practical sagacity, that he was reckoned one of the Seven 
Sages. His public conduct was animated by a lofty spirit 
of patriotism. He was still young when lie recovered for 
Athens the island of Salamis, which had revolted to Meg&ra, 
and which his countrymen despaired of ever retaking. 'J his 
and other achievements, coupled with his well-known integ 
rity and sympathy for the poorer cla , gained him the con- 
fidence of all. 

Measure fob the Ri.i.u-.i of Debtors (b. c 594). — ■ 

At Athens, as in most ancient states, the wealthy were in the 
habit of lending money at exorbitant rates; and, upon the 
debtor's failure to pay the principal and interest, they had 
the power of seizing even his person, and of using him as a 
slave. Many had thus been torn from 'their homes and sold 
to barbarian masters, while others were cultivating as slaves 
the lands of their creditors in Athens. Cho . as archon in 
594, and desiring to allay the discontent of the poor who 
were ready to break into open insurrection, Solon set. 
liberty those who had been reduced to slavery on account of 
debt, relieved the land from all encumbrances and claims, 
and forbade for the future all loans in which the person of 
debtor was pledged as security. As a compensation to the 
rich, he lowered the standard of coinage, so that whatever 
money they owned became more valuable than before by a 
little more than one-fourth. 

SOLON'S Co »TITUTIO .'. — With a view of giving some 
re in the government to others than the eupatrids^ Solon 
v up a new constitution, whereby the title of the citi// 
to the honors and offices of the state would be ted by 

their wealth, and not by their birth. The Athenian freemen 
were th r ttributed into four cl aceor« igtol 

property. The first class c- .' of those whose annual 

income was ecmal to 500 medimni* of corn and up 

*The rncclirnnus contained nearly 12 imperial gallons, or iy 2 
bushel ; it was reckoned equal to a drachma. 



2i6 GREECE. Chapt. V. 

those having an income ranging between 300 and 500 
medimni, or between 2co and 300, formed respectively the 
second and the third class ; the fourth included all those 
whose income fell short of 200 medimni. The members of 
the first three classes had to pay an income-tax, according to 
the amount of their property ; the fourth class were exempt 
from direct taxation altogether. The first class were alone 
eligible to the archonship and the higher offices of the state. 
The second and third classes filled inferior posts, and were 
liable to military service, the former as horsemen, and the 
latter as hoplites, or heavy-armed foot-soldiers. To the 
fourth class, who served in the army as light-armed troops, 
no other political privilege was granted than the right to 
vote in the ecclesia, or public assembly. But the powers of 
this assembly were considerably enlarged. In it, the archons 
and the other officers of the state were elected ; and to it, at 
the expiration of their year of office, the archons were made 
accountable. A new senate, called the Council of the Four 
Hundred, was created, whose special object it was to prepare 
all matters for the discussion of the public assembly, to pre- 
side over its. meeting, and to carry its resolutions into effect. 
The members of this senate were elected annually by the 
ecclesia> one hundred from each of the four ancient tribes ; 
and were answerable to it for the manner in which they dis- 
charged their duty. Solon enlarged also the powers of the 
Areopagus, entrusting it with the general supervision of the 
institutions and laws of the state, and imposing upon it the 
duty of inspecting the lives and occupations of the citizens. 

The Laws of Solon. — Of these laws, which were many 
and contained regulations on all subjects connected with 
the public and private life of the citizens, only a few frag- 
ments have come down to us. Besides those relating to 
debtor and creditor, there were others having for their 
object the encouragement of trade and manufactures, the 
punishing of idleness, and the rewards to be bestowed upon 
the victors in the Olympic and Isthmian games. By Solon's 
code a convicted thief was forced to restore double the value 
of the property stolen ; and a man who, in a civil sedition, 
stood neutral, was declared dishonored and disfranchised. 

Usurpation of Pisistratus ( b. c. 560-527). — The con- 
stitution of Solon failed to bring durable tranquility to the 
Athenians. Having bound them by a solemn oath to 
observe his laws for at least ten years, he left Athens and 









B. C. 683-500. ATHENS. 217 

travelled in foreign lands. On his return, he found it dis- 
tracted again by the old dissensions between the Plain (the 
wealthy nobles), the Shore (the mercantile inhabitants of the 
coast), and the Mountain (the poor tillers of the hilly districts). 
The leader of the last class was Pisistratus. By his liberality, 
his eloquence, and the affability of his manners, he first won 
the favor of the common people ; and, when his schemes 
were ripe for action, had recourse to a memorable stratagem 
to secure his object. One day he appeared in the market- 
place in a chariot, his mules and his own person bleeding 
with wounds inflicted with his own hands. These he 
exhibited to the people, telling them that he had been nearly 
murdered in consequence of defending their rights. The popu- 
lar indignation was excited. A guard of fifty clubmen was 
granted him for the security of his person. This he gradually 
increased ; and soon, by seizing the Acropolis, made himself 
master of the city. In vain did Solon oppose this usurpa- 
tion ; the people submitted to the rule of the despot. 

Pisistratus made a wise use of his power. He maintained 
the institutions of Solon; he relieved the distress of the 
poor; he adorned Athens with many public buildings, 
and encouraged literature and the fine arts. He is 
said to have been the first person in Greece that col- 
lected a library, which he threw open to the public. To 
him posterity is indebted for the collection of the Homeric 
poems. 

Government of Hippias and Hipparchus (b. c. 
527-510). — After the death of Pisistratus, his sons Hippias 
and Hipparchus, for several years, conducted the govern- 
ment on the same principles as their father. Their court 
was the residence of the best scholars of that age, among 
others of the famous poets Anacreon and Simonides. The 
people appeared contented under their rule ; and it was only 
an accidental circumstance which led to their overthrow. 
Two Athenian youths, Harmodius and Aristogitcn, wishing 
to avenge a personal insult, conspired to take the lives of the 
two brothers. Hipparchus alone fell (b. c. 514). His mur- 
der converted Hippias into a cruel and suspicious tyrant. 
He put to death numbers of the citizens, and raised large 
sums of money by extraordinary taxes. In four years he 
was overthrown, and soughtjrefuge with the Persian satrap 
at Sardis. His downfall paved the way for the revolution 
which gave birth to Athenian democracy. 

19 



218 GREECE. Chapt. V. 

Clisthenes establishes the Athenian Democracy 
(b. c 510). — The Solonian legislation, though it gave a vote 
in the popular assembly to the poorer class, had practically- 
left the government an oligarchy, by vesting the whole 
political power in the hands of the wealthy. Solon had 
merely laid the foundation of the Athenian democracy ; its 
real establishment was the work of Clisthenes. Clisthenes, 
to whom Athens was mainly indebted for the overthrow of 
Hippias, aspired to be the political leader of the state, but 
was opposed by Isagoras and the great body of the nobles. 
Nor did he deem it possible, under the existing order of 
things, to overcome his rivals. " He therefore," says Hero- 
dotus, "took the people into partnership, who had been 
before excluded from everything." Though personal aggran- 
dizement may have been one of the motives of his reforms, 
Clisthenes doubtless saw the propriety of placing the consti- 
tution on a more popular basis, and of giving to a greater 
number of citizens a personal interest in the welfare and 
preservation of the state. 

Reforms of Clisthenes. — His first and most important 
reform was the redistribution of the whole population of 
Attica into ten tribes. There was at the time, in the country, 
a large body of residents — Athenians, aliens, emancipated 
slaves— who were systematically excluded by the policy of 
the nobles from the four ancient Ionian tribes, and were thus 
deprived of the franchise. Clisthenes enrolled all such in 
his new tribes. The senate of Four Hundred he increased to 
500 members, 50 being selected from each tribe, and he con- 
siderably enlarged the power of that body. Its sittings 
became constant, the fifty members of each tribe taking 
turns for the dispatch of public business. Fixed periods 
also were determined for the formal assembling of the citi- 
zens, the ecclesia, which henceforth enjoyed greater author- 
ity than before, many of the functions hitherto discharged by 
the archons being transferred to it. From this time forward 
all public crimes were tried by the whole body of citizens 
above 30 years of age, specially convoked and sworn for the 
purpose. The division of the people into ten tribes led to 
the creation of 10 strategi, or generals, one for each tribe. 
They were elected annually ; and, during a campaign, they 
commanded the army in rotation, each for one day. Hith- 
erto the Polemarch had been the sole leader of the military 
force. He still retained a joint right of command along with 



B. C. 683-50O. ATHENS. 2IO, 

the strategi ; but, with the advance of democracy, his attri- 
butions became more and more restricted, whilst the func- 
tions of the general grew more extensive. Gradually, 
indeed, the nine archons were lowered down from the full 
executive and judicial competence which they had once 
enjoyed, to the simple ministry of police and preparatory 
justice. 

The Ostracism. — Another institution introduced by 
Clisthenes was that of the ostracism, a mode of banishment 
whereby without special accusation, trial, or defence, a 
person was exiled for a term of ten years, subsequently 
reduced to five. It derived its name from the word ostracon, 
the tile, shell, or sherd, on which the voters generally wrote 
the name of citizens to be banished. " Ostracism" says 
Plutarch, " was not the punishment of any criminal act, but 
was speciously said to be the mere depression and humilia- 
tion of excessive greatness and power ; and was, in fact, a 
gentle relief and mitigation of envious feeling, thus allowed 
to vent itself without the infliction of other injury than a 
ten years' banishment." Ostracism was what Plutarch 
represents it ; but it was something more. As the small 
force which the government had at its disposal, rendered 
it easy for an ambitious man to make himself a despot, the 
ostracism was the means devised by Clisthenes to remove in 
time persons strongly suspected of such a design. To 
guard the institution from abuse, a preliminary resolution of 
the senate and ecclesia, formally approving the vote of ostra- 
cism, was first required. Nor was any one banished unless 
6000 votes — about one-fourth of the whole body of citizens 
— were found to have been cast against him. No moral 
disgrace attached to the sentence, and the exiled citizen 
retained the enjoyment of his property. In the earlier days 
of Athenian democracy, the ostracism proved most useful 
against individual usurpation of power, and against danger- 
ous exaggeration of rivalry between leaders of opposite 
factions. When democracy grew strong enough to dispense 
with such exceptional protection, the ostracism was abolished. 



220 GREECE. Chapt. VI. 



CHAPTER VI. 



The Greek Colonies founded between Soo-600 b. c. 



Besides their colonies in Asia, which have been mentioned 
before, the Greeks founded others in Macedonia and Thrace ; 
in Epirus and its immediate neighborhood; at Cyrene, on 
the northern coast of Africa ; at Marseilles, in Gaul ; at Syra- 
cuse, Agrigentum, and elsewhere, in Sicily ; and especially 
in the south of Italy. Here, indeed, the Grecian settlements 
were so many and so nourishing, that this part of the penin- 
sula received the name of Magna Grcecia. Of the chief 
Greek colonies in the west, we have room for only a few 
brief particulars. 

Sybaris and Croton, both situated on the gulf of Tarentum, 
and both planted by Achaeans in B. C. 720 and 710. rapidly 
increased in power and population. For two centuries, they 
lived in harmony, and were among the most prosperous of 
the Hellenic cities. Sybaris, in particular, attained to an 
extraordinary degree of wealth. But the effeminacy of its 
inhabitants, which has become proverbial, and an unhappy 
quarrel with the Crotonians, effected its destruction in b. c. 
510. About B. C. 440, Croton afforded an asylum to the 
Samian Pythagoras, and it became the chief seat of the 
Pythagorean philosophy. 

Tarentum was, after the destruction of Sybaris, the most 
powerful city in Magna Grsecia. It continued to enjoy great 
prosperity till its subjugation by the Romans. 

An admirable position, extensive commerce, excellent 
harbors, strong walls and fortifications, besides the number 
and wealth of its inhabitants, placed Syracuse, at the time of 
its greatest prosperity, among the first cities of the ancient 
world. 

Marseilles was noted for the wisdom of its government and 
institutions; as also for its schools, for its politeness, tem- 
perance, and other civic virtues. 

The ancient greatness of Cyrene is attested by the colossal 
ruins which still mark its desolate site. 



B. C, 75O-500. LYRIC POETS. 221 



CHAPTER VII. 

Grecian Poets, Sages, and Philosophers. — b. c. 750-500. 

Origin ©f Greek Lyric Poetry. — Of the Homeric 
poems and of the early excellence attained by Greek epic 
poetry, we have already spoken. The lyric poetry grew up 
later, being called into existence, about the middle of the 7th 
century before the Christian era, by the change of circum- 
stances, thoughts, and feelings, as well as by the improvement 
of the art of music. The lyric poems of the Greeks were 
composed, not for private reading, but to be sung on festive 
occasions with the accompaniment of a musical instrument. 
Every important event, either public or private, was thus 
solemnized ; and the song was equally needed to worship 
the gods, to cheer the march to battle, or to enliven the 
festive board. Unfortunately, of the mass of the lyric poetry 
composed previous to the age of Pindar, all that has survived 
consists of a few songs and isolated fragments. Sufficient, 
however, remains to enable us to form an opinion of its 
surpassing excellence. The following were the most dis- 
tinguished masters of lyric song. 

Chief Lyric Poets between 700-500 B. c. — Archilo- 
chus, one of the earliest and most celebrated of lyric poets, 
nourished about the year 700 B. c. He was the first Greek 
that composed iambic verses according to fixed rules. Poor, 
the son of a slave-mother, and therefore held in contempt, 
he gave vent in terrible satires, to the bitterness of a disap- 
pointed man, and passed a great part of his life in wandering 
from place to place. For poetical genius, the ancients placed 
him nearly on a par with Homer. 

Tyrtceus is celebrated for his martial songs, whereby he 
roused the fainting courage of the Spartans, and animated 
them to new efforts against the Messenians. The Spartans 
showed their gratitude by making him a citizen of their 
state. 

Alcman, who was originally a Lydian slave in a Spartan 
family, but emancipated by his master, lived in the period 
which followed the conclusion of the second Messenian war. 
Many of his poems celebrate the pleasure of good eating and 
drinking ; but the more important were intended to be sung 
by a chorus at the public festivals of Sparta. 



222 



GREECE. Chapt. VII. 



Although choral poetry was successfully cultivated by 
Alcman, it received its chief improvements from Arion and 
Stesichorus. Arion, a native of Methymna in Lesbos, flour- 
ished at the court of Periander, tyrant of Corinth, (b. c. 625- 
585). Of the events of Arion's life we know nothing beyond 
the beautiful story of his escape from the sailors, when a 
dolphin took him on its back and carried him in safety to 
land. The great improvement in lyric poetry ascribed to 
Arion is the invention of the dithyramb, an elaborate com- 
position in honor of the god Dionysius, sung and danced by 
a chorus of fifty persons specially trained for the purpose. 
This was the germ from which, at a later date, sprang the 
drama. 

Stesichorus (b. c. 632-560) still further improved the 
Greek choral song, which till now consisted of one uniform 
stanza, by dividing it into the strophe, the antistrophe, and 
the epode — the turn, the return, and the rest 

Alcaeus and Sappho, both natives of Mytilene in the 
island of Lesbos, and contemporary, were each the inventor of 
a new metre — the Alcaic and the Sapphic. The poems of 
Alcseus, which have received the highest praise, are his 
warlike odes. 

In an extant epigram, Pluto calls Sappho the tenth muse ; 
and it is related of Solon, that, on hearing for the first time 
the recital of one of her poems, he prayed that he might not 
see death until he had committed it to* memory. At Myti- 
lene, Sappho was the centre of a female literary society, the 
members of which were her pupils in poetry, fashion, and 
gallantry. Her poems were chiefly amatory. Several frag- 
ments, which have been preserved, display an exquisite taste 
in the use of images drawn from nature. The most important 
of these fragments, is an ode to the goddess of love. 

The universal tradition of antiqifity represents Anacreon — 
the last lyric poet of the period under review — as a consum- 
mate voluptuary. The few fragments of his poems that have 
come down to us, prove the truth of the tradition. He sings 
of love and wine with hearty good will, and his death was 
worthy of his life, if we may believe the account that he was 
choked by a grape -stone. 

The Seven Sages. — The name of the Seven Sages has 
been given to certain personages who flourished in various 
parts of the Grecian world, during the sixth century before 
the Christian era, and who were noted for their practical 



B. C. 750-500. PHILOSOPHERS. 223 

sagacity and wise sayings. Those most commonly honored 
with the title are Solon, Thales, Periander, Pittacus, Cleobu- 
lus, Chilo, and Bias. Of Solon, the legislator of Athens, we 
have already spoken ; and Thales will presently claim our 
attention as the founder of Grecian philosophy. 

Periander, who was despot of Corinth from 625 to 585 b. C, 
made that city the wealthiest and the most powerful of all 
the commercial communities of Greece. He welcomed to 
his court the poet Arion and the philosopher Anarcharsis, 
and was a warm patron of literature and art. 

Pittacus, a native of Mytilene, stood as the champion of 
the people against the nobles. Unanimously chosen by the 
democracy as dictator, he held this office for ten years ( B. c. 
589-579), during which time he not only defeated all the 
efforts of the exiled nobles to regain power, but firmly estab- 
lished the constitution on a popular basis. He then volun- 
tarily resigned, and withdrew into honorable retirement. 
The maxims attributed to him illustrate the amiable features 
of his character. He pronounced ' the greatest blessing 
that a man can enjoy to be the power of doing good.' 

Cleobulus was despot of Lindus, in the island of Rhodes, 
and is known only by his pithy sayings, one of which was 
that ' a man should never leave his house without consider- 
ing well what he was about to do, nor reenter it without 
reflecting on what he had done.' 

Chilo, of Sparta, was ephor in his native city, and father- 
in-law to king Demaratus. When asked what were the 
three most difficult things in a man's life, he replied : ' To 
keep a secret, to forgive injuries, and to make a profitable 
use of leisure time.' 

Bias, of Priene, in Ionia, was the latest of the Seven Sages. 
The following are specimens of his maxims : " The most 
unfortunate of all men is he who knows not how to bear 
misfortune ; " and " A man should be slow in making up his 
mind, but swift in executing." 

The famous mottoes afterwards inscribed in the Delphian 
temple, " Know thyself — Nothing too much — Know thy op- 
portunity — Suretyship is the precursor of ruin," are also 
ascribed to the Seven Sages. 

The Ionic, Eleatic, and Pythagorean School of 
Philosophy. — Besides the Sages just mentioned, the Grecian 
race produced many philosophers, or friends of wisdom. 
The most ancient of these was Thales of Miletus (b. c. 640- 



^24 GREECE. Chapt. vii. 

550), who is reckoned among the Seven Sages. He was 
the founder of the Ionic school of philosophy, and to him 
were traced the first beginnings, among the Greeks, of geome- 
try and astronomy. Fie taught that water was the principle 
of all things. 

The next great philosopher of the Ionic school was An- 
aximander (b. c. 610-547), wno was distinguished for his 
knowledge of astronomy and geography, and to whom is 
referred the introduction of the sun-dial into Greece. He 
was also one of the earliest Greek writers in prose, in which 
he composed a geographical treatise. This work he is said 
to have enriched with a chart, or map. Anaximenes, who 
maintained that air was the source of life, and Heraclitus, of 
Ephesus, who regarded fire, or heat, as the primary form of 
matter, were distinguished followers of Thales. But the 
most illustrious name of the Ionic school is that of Anaxa- 
goras, of Clazomenae. 

Anaxagoras (b. c. 499-427) relinquished his inheritance, 
which was large, to his relatives, in order to devote himself 
entirely to philosophy. For thirty years he taught at 
Athens, numbering among his hearers Pericles, Socrates, 
Euripides. Instead of regarding, like his predecessors, 
some elementary form of matter as the origin of all things, 
he conceived a supreme mind or intelligence, distinct from 
the visible world, to have imparted form and order to the 
chaos of nature. These innovations afforded the Athenians 
a pretext for indicting Anaxagoras of impiety, and he had 
to quit the city. 

Xenophanes, of Colophon, conceived the whole of nature 
to be God. He was the founder of the Eleatic school of 
philosophy, so called from Elea, or Velia, a Greek colony 
of southern Italy, whither he fled for refuge on the conquest 
of his native land by the Persians. 

The chief tenet of the Pythagorean school, founded by 
Pythagoras (b. c. 580-504), was a belief in metempsychosis, 
or the transmigration of souls into different bodies of men or 
animals. Pythagoras was a native of Samos, and the son 
of a rich merchant. In his youth he travelled extensively 
through the east, visiting Egypt, and probably also Phoe- 
nicia and Babylon. He is said to have received instruction 
from Thales and Anaximander, and he became eminent for 
his knowledge Of geometry and arithmetic. But it was 
chiefly as a religious teacher that he acquired influence. 



B. C, 60O-50O. GRECIAN ART. 225 

At Croton, in Italy, he established a kind of religious 
brotherhood, the members of which were bound together 
by peculiar rites and observances. Temperance was strictly 
enjoined ; and the whole training of the members tended to 
produce great self-possession and mastery over the passions. 
The war which the Crotonians carried on against Sybaris, 
was undertaken through the advice of Pythagoras ; and the 
forces of Croton were commanded by Milo, a member of 
the brotherhood. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Grecian Art in the Sixth Century b. c. 

Architecture of Temples. — As in Egypt and Baby- 
lonia, the progress of architecture among the Greeks was 
chiefly connected with the erection of sacred edifices ; and, 
as early as the sixth century b. c, there were built several 
magnificent temples in various parts of Hellas. Of these 
the most celebrated was the temple of Artemis (Diana) at 
Ephesus, which from its size, material, and splendor was 
regarded as one of the wonders of the world. Its length 
was 425 feet, its breadth 220; the columns which supported 
its roof, were 60 feet in height and 1 1 7 in number. Burnt 
down by Herostratus on the night that Alexander the Great 
was born, b. c. 356, it was rebuilt with still greater magnifi- 
cence by the contributions of all the states of Asia minor. 
Two other splendid sanctuaries, also dating from the sixth 
century before the Christian era, were the temple of Juno at 
Samos, and the temple of Apollo at Delphi, as rebuilt by 
the ' Alcmaeonidse after its destruction by fire in b. c. 548. 
There are still to be seen in southern Italy, Sicily, and 
ALgina, remains of sacred edifices erected at this period, 
which fill the beholders with admiration and astonishment. 

Statuary. — Whilst sculptured figures on architectural 
monuments were erected at an early period in a superior 
style of art, statuary proper, or the construction of a round 
figure standing by itself, long continued in a rude state 
among the Greeks. But, about the beginning of the sixth 
century B. c, a fresh impulse was given to statuary, as well 



226 GREECE. Chapt. IX. 

as to the other arts, by the invention, or introduction into 
Hellas, of certain mechanical processes in the use and appli- 
cation of the metals. Glaucus of Chios is mentioned as the 
inventor of the art of soldering metal, and Rhcecus of 
Samos, with his son Theodorus, as the inventor of the art 
of casting figures of bronze in a mould. The magnificent 
temples erected at this time also calied into exercise the 
talent of the sculptor, since the friezes and pediments were 
usually adorned with figures in relief. Finally, the practice 
of erecting statues of the victors in the great public games, 
which began about b. c. 550, was likewise of great service 
in the development of the art. 

Painting appears to have developed later than architect- 
ure or sculpture. The most ancient specimens of Grecian 
paintings that have come down to us, are found on Corin- 
thian vases dating no farther back than the sixth century b. c. 
Mention is made of paintings, in relation to the capture of 
Phocsea by Harpagus in b. c. 544 ; and, a few years after- 
wards, Mandrocles, who constructed for Darius the bridge 
across the Bosphorus, had a picture painted representing 
the passage of the army with the king seated on his throne 
and reviewing the troops. 



CHAPTER IX. 
The Asiatic Greeks. 



Influence of Lydia upon the Asiatic Greeks. — 
The Assyrian and Babylonian empires, not including any 
countries inhabited by the Greeks, exercised only a remote 
influence upon Grecian civilization. Not so Lydia, which 
stood in the close proximity of the Greek cities in Ionia. 
The Lydians were a wealthy and industrious people. They 
carried on an extensive commerce, practised manufactures, 
and were acquainted with various arts. From them the 
Ionic Greeks derived various improvements in the useful 
and the ornamental arts, especially in the weaving and dyeing 
of fine fabrics, in the processes of metallurgy, and in the 
style of their music. The growth of the Lydian monarchy 
was attended with another advantage to the Grecian cities 



B. C. 700-490. THE ASIATIC GREEKS. 227 

on the coast. As the territory of the Lydians did not 
originally extend to the sea, the whole of the commerce 
with the Mediterranean passed through the Grecian cities, 
and was carried on in Grecian ships. This contributed 
greatly to the prosperity of Phocsea, and other Ionian com- 
munities. How the Asiatic Greeks were subdued by Croe- 
sus, and after his fall passed under the sway of the Persians, 
has been related above. 

Polycrates of Samos. — Not only the Asiatic Greeks 
on the mainland, but even the inhabitants of the islands of 
Chios and Lesbos, became the subjects of Cyrus. Samos, 
however, maintained its independence some time longer. 
At the beginning of the reign of Cambyses, it reached, 
under its despot Polycrates, an extraordinary degree of 
prosperity. Samos was then the most important naval power 
in the world. Everything which its ruler undertook, seemed 
to prosper. Such good fortune excited the alarm of Amasis, 
the ally of Polycrates. He advised his friend to avert the 
envy of the gods by throwing away one of his most valuable 
possessions. Polycrates thereupon cast into the sea a favorite 
ring of great value. But this, a few days afterwards, was 
found in the belly of a fish, which a fisherman sent him as 
a present ; and Amasis, concluding the ruin of Polycrates 
to be inevitable, renounced his alliance. Not long after, 
Orcetes, the satrap of Sardis, allured Polycrates to the 
mainland, where he was treacherously seized, and hanged 
upon a cross (b. c. 522). Like many other Grecian despots, 
Polycrates was a patron of literature and the arts, The 
poets Ibycus and Anacreon found a welcome at his court ; 
and to him are attributed the vast temple of Juno at Samos, 
the mole to protect the harbor, and a magnificent aqueduct 
which supplied the city with water. 

The Asiatic Greeks and Darius. — When Darius in- 
vaded Scythia, his fleet of 600 ships was furnished by the 
Asiatic Greeks. These threw for him the bridge of boats 
across the Danube, and under their care it was left until his 
return. When invited by the Scythians and by the Athe- 
nian Miltiades to break down the bridge, and thus recover 
their own liberty by bringing about the destruction of the 
whole Persian army, the rulers of the Ionian cities were at 
first disposed to follow the suggestion. But, as soon as 
Histiseus of Miletus reminded them that their own sover- 
eignty depended on the support of the Persian king, they 



228 GREECE. Chapt. IX. 

changed their mind, and resolved to preserve the bridge. 
For this service Darius gave to Histiaais the important town 
of Myrcinus, near the Strymon ; but, soon suspecting him of 
dangerous designs against Persian sovereignty, he took him 
to Susa, where he detained him in honorable captivity. 

The Ionic Revolt (b. c. 500). — In the absence of 
Histiaais, Miletus, now the most flourishing city of Ionia, 
was ruled by his son-in-law, Aristagoras. This despot, 
having incurred the displeasure of the Persian government, 
was thinking of exciting- a revolt of his countrymen, when 
a message from Histiaais fixed his purpose. The latter 
longed to escape from captivity at Susa, and saw no other 
chance of effecting his object than an insurrection, which 
Darius, he expected, would dispatch him to quell. Not 
daring to trust any one with the dangerous message he 
wished to transmit to his son-in law, Histiseus shaved the 
he id of a trusty slave, branded upon it the necessary words, 
and, as soon as the hair had grown again, sent him off to 
Miletus. Aristagoras forthwith assembled the leading citi- 
zens, and laid before. them the project of revolt, which was 
adopted. He then resigned the supreme power, leaving to 
the people the management of their own affairs. The other 
Grecian despots were seized : and, a demoeratieal form of 
government was established. 

Aristagoras now crossed over to Greece, in order to solicit 
assistance from the more powerful states in the mother- 
country. At Sparta, he was disappointed. But at Athens, 
the second power in Greece, and the mother-eity of the 
Ionic states, he experienced more sympathy. The Athe- 
nians, moreover, were incensed against Artaphernes, who 
had recently commanded them to recall Hippias. So they 
agreed to send a squadron of 20 ships to the assistance of 
the Ionians. "These ships," says Herodotus, "were the 
beginning of mischief between Give •> and barbarians." 

In B. C. 500, the Athenian squadron, ' >ined by five ships 
from Eretria in Eubcea, crossed the Aegean. The troops 
were disembarked at Ephesus, and, being reinforced by a 
strong body of Ionians. inarched forthwith to Sardis. Arta- 
phernes, taken unprepared, withdrew into the citadel, leav- 
ing the town a prey to the invaders. While the latter were 
engaged in pillage, one of the soldiers set lire to a house. 
As most of the houses were built of wickerwork and 
thatched with straw, the conflagration rapidly spread, and 



B. C 700-490. THE ASIATIC GREEKS. 22Q 

in a short time the whole city was in flames. The invaders, 
however, wore soon forced to evacuate the place; and, be- 
fore they could reach the walls o( Ephesus, were overtaken 
and defeated with great slaughter. 

ANGER OF Darius. — Darius on hearing of the burning of 
Sardis, burst into a paroxysm oi rage. It was against the 
obscure strangers — Athenians and Eretrians — who had dared 
to invade his dominions and burn one of his capitals, that 
his wrath was chiefly directed. "The Athenians," he 
exclaimed, " who are they ? " Upon being informed, he took 
his bow, shot an arrow high into the air, saying, " Grant me, 
Supreme God, to take vengeance upon the Athenians !" 
and he charged one of his attendants to remind him thrice 
every day, at dinner, " Master, remember the Athenians." 
Such, at least, is the account of the incident, as transmitted 
by Herodotus. The whole passage well illustrates the 
epical handling usual with ' the father of history.' 

Suppression of the Ionic Revolt. — The insurrection 
spread to the Greek cities in Cyprus, as well as to those on 
the Hellespont and the Propontis. The Carians made com- 
mon cause with the Ionians ; and, a few months after the 
burning of Sardis, the revolt had reached its height. The 
Asiatic Greeks, however, were no match for the whole power 
of Darius, which was soon brought against them. Cyprus 
yielded to a Persian army transported thither by a Phoenician 
ileet. The Carians were vigorously attacked. Many cities, 
in various parts, were subdued ; and, in the sixth year of the 
revolt, Artaphernes concentrated his troops to besiege 
Miletus on the land-side, while the Phoenicians would attack 
it from the sea. In this emergency, the Pan-Ionic council 
resolved to leave Miletus to its own defences on the land- 
side, and to embark all their forces on board their ships. 
Hut the combined armament was defeated by the Phoenician 
ileet, and this action decided the fate of the war. Miletus 
was taken by storm, and treated with signal severity. Most 
of the males were slain ; the women and children were 
carried into captivity. The islands of Chios, Lesbos, and 
Tenedos were "swept oi their inhabitants. The people oi' 
Byzantium and Chalcedon, not choosing to await the 
arrival of the Persians, sailed away at their approach. The 
Asiatic Greeks suffered more from this than from their 
former subjugation by Croesus and Cyrus: they never fully 
recovered their ancient prosperity, 
20 



230 GREECE. Chapt. X. 

CHAPTER X. 

The Persian Wars.-— c. c. 490-479. 

Expedition of Mardonius (b. c. 492). — The conquest 
of Ionia being now completed, Mardonius, a son-in-law of 
Darius, was sent at the head of a large armament, with 
injunctions to bring to Susa those Athenians and Eretrians 
who had insulted the authority of the Great King. But a 
storm at Athos shattered the fleet ; and the land army, which 
had taken the coast route through Thrace and Macedonia, 
was crippled by a night attack of the Bryges, a tribe of 
Thracians. The failure of this expedition did not shake the 
resolution of Darius, and he began at once preparations for 
another attempt on a larger scale. 

Battle of Marathon (b. c. 490). — In the spring of 
B. c. 490, a Persian fleet of 600 vessels, commanded by the 
Median Datis, landed near Marathon, in Attica, an army of 
150,000 men. To this overwhelming force the Athenian 
general Miltiades* could oppose no more than n,ooo.f But 
every man in his little troop was a hero. As soon as the 
signal was given, the Athenians rushed on the enemy with 
all the fury which national honor, courage, and the dread of 
oppression, can inspire; and, attacking the two wings of the 
Persians, before these were well prepared for the fight, threw 
them into disorder. Datis, however, who noticed the com- 
parative weakness of the Athenian centre, so pressed it with 
his best troops, that Aristides and Themistocles, who com- 
manded there, were unable to withstand the shock and 
began to give way. Just at that moment, Miltiades, draw- 
ing back his two wings, led them against the triumphant 
Persians, who could not long resist the combined attack. 

*Ten generals, or strategi, had been elected for the year accord- 
ing to custom, one for each tribe ; but they surrendered to Miltiades 
their days of command, that, by investing the whole power in a 
single person, there might be more unity in the military operations. 

fOf this number, 1000 were furnished by the little town of 
Plataea in Bceotia. At the approach of the Persians, the courier 
Phidippides was sent to Sparta to solicit assistance, and such was his 
extraordinary speed of foot that he performed this journey of 150 
miles in 48 hours. The Spartans promised their aid. But, think- 
ing themselves bound to wait for the full moon before setting out, 
they were too late for the combat. 



B. C. 49O-479. 



THE PERSIAN WARS. 



231 




MARATHDH - 



Their rout became general, and they fled to their ships, leav- 
ing 6,400 men on the field. Of the Athenians only 192 fell. 
The Persians having reembarked, their fleet at once made 
for Athens. But 
Miltiades, who 
foresaw the dan- 
ger, hastened 
back to the city 
and arrived in 
time to prevent 
a fresh landing 
of the invaders. 
Finding himself 
anticipated, Da- 
tis sailed to the 
Cyclades. 

Effect of the Battle upon the Athenians. — 
Marathon became a magic word at Athens. The Athenian 
people, in succeeding ages, always looked back upon this 
day as the most glorious in their annals, and they had reason 
to be proud of it. It was the first time that the Greeks had 
ever defeated the Persians in the field. It was the exploit 
of the Athenians alone. It had saved not only Athens, but 
all Greece. "Hitherto," says Herodotus, "the very name 
of Medes had struck terror into the hearts of the Greeks ; 
and the Athenians were the first to endure the sight of their 
armor, and to look them in the face on the field of battle." 
Marathon proved to the world that the undisciplined Per- 
sians, whose bodies were unprotected with armor, and who 
fought only with javelins and daggers, were no match for 
the mailed warriors of Greece, fighting in serried ranks and 
armed with long spears. 

Death of Miltiades. — Shortly after Marathon, Mil- 
tiades failed in an attack on the island of Paros, which he 
undertook to gratify a private animosity. For this he was 
brought to trial ; and, not being able to justify his conduct, 
was condemned to a heavy fine. He died soon afterwards 
of a wound received at the siege of Paros. 

Aristides and Themistocles.— The two leading citi- 
zens of Athens, after the death of Miltiades, were Aristides 
and Themistocles. The latter possessed abilities most ex- 
traordinary ; but they were marred by a want of honesty. 
The uprightness of the former was universally acknowl- 



232 



GREECE. Chapt. X. 



edged. Themistocles was the leader of the democratical, 
and Aristides of the conservative party. After some years 
of rivalry, the two chiefs appealed to the ostracism, and 
Aristides was banished (b. c. 483). On the voting day, an 
unlettered countryman, who did not know Aristides, re- 
quested him to write the name of Aristides upon his shell. 
" Has he done you any injury? " asked Aristides. " No," re- 
plied the* stranger, "but I am annoyed to hear him every- 
where called the just." Aristides, without saying a word, 
wrote his name, and set out for his exile. 

Fresh Preparations of Darius. — The overthrow of 
Marathon exceedingly surprised and annoyed king Darius. 
His wrath against the Athenians was more inflamed than 
ever; and he commenced vigorous preparations for a 
renewed attack upon them, as well as upon Greece in general. 
Nor was his determination abated by a revolt of the Egyp- 
tians. He was on the point of undertaking simultaneously 
the two enterprises — the conquest of Greece and the recon- 
quest of Egypt — when he was overtaken by death. 

Army of Xerxes. — Xerxes without much difficulty put 
down the Egyptian revolt. Foreseeing that the subjection 
of Greece would prove a harder task, he spent four years in 
careful preparation. The whole force of the empire, now 
more extensive than ever, was called out. Fifty-four nations 
subject or tributary to Susa, swelled with their contingents 
the fleet and army of the Great King. Never probably, in 
the history of mankind, has there been assembled such a 
body of men, as Xerxes reviewed after the passage of the 
Hellespont. 

Faintheartedness of the Greeks. — Such was the 
terror inspired by the countless host of Xerxes that most of 
the Greek states at once tendered their submission. The 
only people, north of the. Isthmus of Corinth, who remained 
faithful to the cause of Grecian liberty, were the Athenians 
and Phocians, and the inhabitants of the small Boeotian 
towns of Plataea and Phocia. In Peloponnesus, the power- 
ful city of Argos stood sullenly aloof. The Achaeans like- 
wise took no part in the contest; and from the more 
distant members of the Hellenic race no assistance was 
obtained. 

Resolution of Athens and Sparta. — Though deserted 
by so many of Hhe Greeks, the Athenians and Spartans 
stood firm. The former, especially, set a noble example of 



B. C. 49O-479. 



PERSIAN WARS. 



233 



an enlarged patriotism. They became reconciled to the 
JEgenitans, with whom they had been long at war; and 
thus gained for the common cause the powerful navy of 
their rival. They readily granted to the Spartans the 
supreme command of the forces by sea as well as by land, 
although they furnished two-thirds of the vessels of the 
entire fleet. Their illustrious citizen Themistocles succeeded 
in breathing into them and their confederates his own invin- 
cible spirit ; and it was resolved to resist to the death. But, 
as the time of the celebration of the Olympic games was at 
hand, the Spartans contented themselves with sending an 
advance guard, under their king Leonidas, to defend the pass 
of Thermopylae.* They hoped that he would hold it until 




after the festivals, when they would march to his aid with their 
whole military force. This they engaged to assemble in 
Bceotia for the defence of Attica, whilst the Athenians were 
serving on shipboard. While the land forces were to make 
a stand at Thermopylae, the allied fleet, under the Spartan 
Eurybiades, was to take up its station at Artemisium, to the 

*The pass is about one mile in length. At each of its extremi- 
ties, the mountain approaches so near to the sea as to leave barely 
room for the passage of a single carriage. The space between 
these narrow entrances — gates, or pylae — was noted for its hot 
springs, from which the pass derived the name of Thermopylae or 
the Hot-Gates. 



234 



GREECE. Chapt. & 



north of Eubcea, and prevent the enemy from landing troops 
at the southern end of the pass. 

Battle of Thermopylae (b. c. 480). — When Xerxes 
came to Thermopylae, he tried at first to frighten or gain 
over the little garrison which defended the pass. Seeing 
threats and promises equally unavailing, he sent against 
them the bravest men in the Persian army. Though con- 
stantly repulsed, for two successive days the attack was as 
constantly renewed. The Greek troops were sufficiently nu- 
merous to relieve one another, when fatigued, since the space 
was so narrow that few could contend at once. But, at that 
critical moment, traitors revealed to Xerxes the existence of 
an unfrequented mountain path, by means of which he 
could turn the position of Leonidas. The one thousand 
Phocians, who had been stationed to guard it, proved unequal 
to the task, and soon Leonidas perceived that the enemy 
were closing upon him from the rear. It was evident that 
Thermopylae could be no longer held. Yielding to the force 
of circumstances, most of the defenders withdrew. But 
Leonidas together with his 300 Spartan companions, and 
700 Thespians, took the generous resolution of selling their 
lives on the spot. Disdaining to confine themselves to the 
defensive, they advanced into the wider space beyond the 
pass, where, fighting with the recklessness of despair, they 
perished on the field. On the hillock where they made 
their last stand, a marble lion was set up in honor of Leoni- 
das. Another monument contained the memorable inscrip- 
tion : 

"Go, tell the Spartans, thou that passest by, 
That here, obedient to their laws, we lie." 

Naval Operations. — While the land-forces were en-, 
gaged at Thermopylae, several desultory combats took place 
at sea. Terrified by the immense superiority of the Persian 
fleet, the Greeks had already abandoned their station at 
Artemisium and were in full retreat, when a furious storm, 
by destroying no fever than 400 vessels of the enemy, re- 
vived their spirits. They sailed back; and, through the 
exhortations of Themistocles, mustered sufficient courage to 
offer battle to the foe. The result of this first engagement 
added to their confidence. They were still further encour- 
aged by the events of the following night, when another 
terrific storm burst upon the Persians. As soon, however, 
as the latter haVl collected their scattered squadrons, they 



B. C. 490-479. THE PERSIAN WARS. £35 

brought their whole fleet to bear upon the Greeks. The 
battle raged furiously the whole day, and each side fought 
with determined valor. But the intelligence reaching Eury- 
biades that Xerxes was master of Thermopylae, he withdrew 
forthwith to the island of Salamis. 

Battle of Salamis (b. c. 480). — It was the intention of 
Eurybiades to take his station at Trcezen, to help in the de- 
fence of the Isthmus of Corinth ; and he stopped at Salamis 
for no other purpose than to assist the Athenians in trans- 
porting their families and effects out of Attica. But Themis- 
tocles prevailed upon him to await here the approach of the 
enemy. Soon Xerxes entered Attica, and proceeded to 
Athens, which he reduced to ashes. His fleet also arrived 
about the same time in the bay of Phalerum. Its strength 
is not accurately known, but must have exceeded 1,000 ves- 
sels. The combined Grecian fleet consisted of 366 ships. 
Of these the Athenian squadron, commanded by Themis- 
tocles, comprised 200. On this force, and still more on the 
character of its commander, hung the fate of Greece. Even 
at the last moment, though no other place could be found 
so favorable to the Greeks, since its narrowness would 
of itself render superiority of numbers useless, Eurybiades 
would have stolen away but for the threats * and shifts of 
Themistocles, who went so far as to warn Xerxes of the con- 
templated flight of the confederates. Xerxes, who feared 
nothing so much as to see his prey escape him, gave orders 
for immediate action ; and, to encourage his troops by his 
presence, caused a throne to be erected on an eminence 
near the sea-shore. The Persians advanced with great im- 
petuosity and courage ; but their ardor was soon checked 
by the superior discipline and resolution of the Greeks, and 
even by the very number and bulk of their own vessels, 
which could scarcely move in that narrow passage. Thus 
embarrassed, they fought in disorder, wavered, and fled. 

Artemisia. — An incident occurred in the fight, which is 

* Plutarch relates that, as Themistocles on one occasion urged 
his opinion with great vehemence, Eurybiades angrily lifted up 
his staff as if he were going to strike, whereupon the Athenian 
exclaimed : "Strike, but hear me ! " In the narrative of Herod- 
otus, it is not Eurybiades, but Adimantus, the Corinthian com- 
mander, who appears as the chief opponent of Themistocles. — 
Previous to the battle of Salamis, Themistocles procured the re- 
call of his rival, Aristides, who hastened back to share in the 
present dangers of his countrymen. 



236 GREECE. Chapt. X. 

worthy of notice. Artemisia, queen of Halicarnassus in 
Caria, who commanded five ships, distinguished herself by 
deeds of great daring. At length, to avoid being taken, she 
turned and fled, pursued by an Athenian _ galley. Full in 
her course lay the vessel of a Carian prince. Instead of 
avoiding, she struck and sunk it, sending to the bottom her 
countryman and his crew. The captain of the Athenian 
ship, believing from this act that she was a deserter from the 
Persian cause, suffered her to escape. Xerxes, who from his 
lofty throne, beheld the feat of the Hajicarnassian queen, 
but who imagined that the sunken vessel belonged to the 
Greeks, exclaimed, full of admiration : "My men are be- 
come women, my women men ! " 

Mardonius Reoccupies Attica (b. c. 479). Great as 
was the loss of the Persians, their fleet was still formidable 
by its numbers, whilst their land-force was yet untouched. 
But the pusillanimity of Xerxes relieved the Greeks from 
further present danger. Passing at once from overweening 
confidence to unreasonable distrust, and anxious only for his 
personal safety, he hastened back to Asia, leaving behind 
300,000 picked Asiatics and 50,000 Greeks, under Mardo- 
nius, who undertook to complete the conquest of Greece. 
The following summer, this general reoccupied Attica, the 
Athenians again withdrawing to Salamis. The Spartans, for 
some time, evinced no disposition of sallying from Pelopon- 
nesus to meet the enemy. At length, however, yielding to 
more generous sentiments, they mustered their own levies, 
and called upon their Peloponnesian allies to furnish their 
quota of troops. Thus the Spartan regent, Pausanias, and 
Aristides, the Athenian general, soon were able to take the 
field at the head of 110,000 men, of whom nearly 40,000 
were heavy-armed. Mardonius, at their approach, withdrew 
into Bceotia. Thither the confederates followed, and both 
armies took up a position along the ^Esopus, not far from 
the town of Platsea. 

Battle of Platsea (b. c. 479). Mardonius had se- 
lected his position with judgment. But his sanguine expec- 
tations were not shared by his men. With the exception of 
the Thebans and Boeotians, his Grecian allies were become 
lukewarm or wavering ; and, even among the Persians 
themselves, the disgraceful flight of their monarch had 
damped all hopes of success. For some time the two 
armies remained in presence. At last, Mardonius ordered a 



B. C. 49O-479. THE PERSIAN WARS. 237 

general advance, his Persian host — cavalry and infantry — ■ 
dashing in a confused mass against the Lacedaemonians, 
while the Thebans attacked the Athenians.. The Persian 
cavalry first came up to the troops of Pausanias ; the in- 
fantry followed, who, planting in the ground their long 
wicker shields, or gerrha, as a sort of breastwork, from be- 
hind began to annoy the Lacedaemonians with showers of 
arrows. But no sooner was the order to charge given, than 
the line of wicker shields was overthrown, and the unpro- 
tected bodies of the light-armed, undisciplined Persians 
afforded an easy mark to the long spears of their foes. In 
vain Mardonius and his cavalry threw themselves upon the 
serried Grecian ranks, endeavoring to get into close com- 
bat, when they could use their javelins and daggers ; they 
could make no impression on the mailed bodies of the 
Spartan phalanx. The fall of their general was the signal 
for flight to the Asiatics; they withdrew into their in- 
trenched camp, and here kept the Spartans at bay. But, 
upon the arrival of the Athenians, who had just beaten off 
their Theban aggressors, the camp was stormed, and became 
a scene of the most horrible carnage. — A body of 40,000 
Persians, under Artabazus took no part in the fight, and 
withdrew leisurely towards the Hellespont. Of the Greeks 
in the Persian service, none but the Thebans were engaged. 
These, though repulsed with considerable loss, retreated in 
good order to Thebes, protected by their cavalry. A siege 
of 20 days sufficed to place Thebes at the mercy of the 
confederates. The Medizing leaders were put to death 
without any form of trial. 

Battle of Mycale (b. c. 479). — The very day on 
which the battle of Plataea was fought, witnessed another 
Grecian triumph at Mycale, near Miletus. Disheartened 
by previous reverses and unwilling to hazard another naval 
engagement, the Persians had hauled ashore a large number 
of ships, which i*iiey surrounded with a rampart, whilst an 
army of 6o,ood Persians lined the coast for their defence. 
These Leotychides, though only disposing of a very inferior 
force, did not hesitate to attack. The Persians, after a sharp 
contest, fled to their fortifications, pursued by the Greeks, 
who entered along with them. Here a bloody struggle en- 
sued. The Persians fought desperately, though without dis- 
cipline, and for some time maintained an unequal conflict. 
At length they were overpowered, and their fleet was burnt. 



2 3 8 



GREECE. 



Chapt. XL 



Its loss deprived Xerxes of his hold upon the islands in the 
^Egean. Nor could he long retain his possessions in Thrace, 
or his control of the Asiatic Greeks. 



CHAPTER XI. 

Supremacy of Athens. — b. c. 479-431. 

Rebuilding of Athens.— Of all the states of Greece, 
none had displayed greater energy in the late struggle, or ac- 
quired greater honor, than Athens. But that city was now 
a heap of ruins; and the Lacedaemonians, yielding to a 




ATT HENS 



base feeling of jealousy, were throwing difficulties in the 
way of its reestablishment. The genius of Themistocles 
again surmounted every obstacle. By his activity and care 
not only the city was rebuilt, but it was made stronger than 
before, its harbor was enlarged and its navy increased. 

Treason of Pausanias. — In the year after the battle of 
Plataea, a fleet was fitted out to carry on the war against the 



B. C. 479-431. SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 239 

Persians. Pausanias, its commander, freed most of the 
Grecian towns in Cyprus and expelled a large Persian force 
from Byzantium. But, in the course of this expedition, he 
gave much offence to the allies by his haughtiness. His 
pride carried him still farther. Weary of the simplicity of 
Spartan life, he sought to ingratiate himself with Xerxes ; 
and, in the hope of an adequate reward from the Persian 
monarch, promised to aid him in the conquest of Greece. 
His designs being suspected, he was recalled. From a first 
trial he came out triumphant. But, as he continued his 
intrigues, such proofs of his treachery were at last obtained 
as made his guilt palpable. To escape arrest he fled to a 
temple of Athene, and took refuge in a small chamber 
attached to the building. From this it was unlawful to drag 
him. But the ephors caused the doors to be walled up and 
the roof to be removed, and his own mother is said to have 
placed the first stone at the doors. When at .the point of 
death, he was carried from the sanctuary before he polluted 
it with his corpse. 

Confederacy of Delos. — The war with Persia now 
required the constant employment of considerable forces at 
a distance from home, as well as the occupation of the ^Egean 
with a powerful navy. After the recall of Pausanias, the 
allies begged Aristides to assume the command; and he 
profited by the confidence reposed in him, to organize a 
league of various states which desired to unite for common 
protection against the attacks of Persia. The league con- 
sisted of the Ionic islands of Samos and Chios; of Rhodes, 
Cos, Lesbos, and Tenedos ; of the Greek towns on the 
peninsula of Chalcidice ; of Byzantium, Miletus, and other 
continental cities. Each state engaged to furnish, as occasion 
required, its quota of men, ships, and money. The league 
obtained the name of the Confederacy of Delos, because 
there the deputies of the states belonging to it were to meet, 
and there was to be the common treasury. The first assess- 
ment was entrusted to Aristides, whose impartiality was 
universally applauded. Athens was made the head of the 
league, and to her was left the appointment of the officers 
who were to collect and administer the contributions. 

The Athenian Empire. — Such was the commencement 
of the Athenian empire. The league began as a free con- 
federation. But soon the right to secede was denied. The 
meetings of the congress were discontinued. The money 



240 GREECE. Chapt. XL 

and ships of the allies were employed by the Athenians, not 
for the common defence alone, but also for their own aggran- 
dizement. The members of the confederacy, excepting the 
most powerful, were treated as Athenian subjects. Thus 
the headship of Athens was gradually converted into sover- 
eignty, a result partly due to the imprudence of the allies 
themselves. Many of the smaller states, weary of incessant 
warfare, commuted for a money payment the ships which 
they were bound to supply. Thus, by depriving themselves 
of a navy, they lost the only means whereby they could 
assert their independence. 

Progress of Athenian Democracy. — The crisis 
through which Athens had recently passed, had rendered the 
progress of the democratical sentiment irresistible. While the 
* greater part of the male population were serving on ship- 
board without distinction of ranks, and the remainder were 
dispersed in temporary exile, political privileges had been 
necessarily suspended ; and the whole body of the people, 
rendered equal by common danger, became also equal in 
their civil rights. The archonship and the council of 
Areopagus, hitherto accessible only to the two richest classes, 
were thrown open to all citizens alike. 

Closing years of Aristides and Themistocles. — The 
reforms just mentioned, which swept away the last vestige of 
property qualification, were proposed by the leader of the 
aristocracy, Aristides. Owing both to the liberal spirit which 
he exhibited on this occasion, and to his great services in 
establishing the confederacy of Delos, his popularity never 
was greater than at the present time, and until his death 
suffered no decline. On the contrary, the conduct of 
Themistocles, his rival in politics, soon laid him open to the 
attacks of his enemies. He offended the Athenians by his 
ostentation and vanity, continually boasting of his services to 
the state. But, worse than all this, while engaged abroad, he 
received bribes from the allied cities which he visited. When 
Pausanias was recalled from Byzantium on suspicion of 
Medism> the political opponents of Themistocles accused him 
of being implicated in the same crime. He was acquitted of 
the charge. But so embittered did party spirit now become 
at Athens, that recourse was had to ostracism, and Themis- 
tocles was banished (b. c. 471). He retired to Argos, and 
had been residing there about five years, when proofs were 
discovered that he was implicated in the correspondence of 



B. C. 479-43I. SUPREMACY OF ATHENS. 24I 

Pausanias with the Persians. Joint envoys, therefore, were 
sent from Athens and Sparta to arrest him. Not daring to 
stand a trial, he fled to Artaxerxes. According to the tales 
current at the time, the Persian monarch experienced such 
joy from the coming of the illustrious exile, that, starting 
from his sleep at night, he thrice cried out : " I have got 
Themistocles the Athenian!" Magnesia was appointed as 
his place of residence, the revenues of that city which 
amounted to the yearly sum of 50 talents, being assigned to 
him for bread, whilst Myos was to supply condiments, and 
Lampsacus wine. Here he died some time after, at the age 
of sixty -five. Acuteness in foreseeing, readiness and wisdom 
in contriving, vigor and decision in acting, were perhaps 
never possessed by any man in a higher degree. But all 
this greatness was debased by avarice and pride ; and these 
vices earned him the hatred of his countrymen, the reputa- 
tion of a traitor, and the death of an exile. 

Rise of Cimon and Pericles. — It was the privilege of 
the Athenian people to possess, during this period, an unin- 
terrupted series of great men. After the banishment of 
Themistocles and the death of Aristides, the chief influence 
among them was exercised by Cimon and Pericles — the 
respective leaders of the conservative and democratical party. 
Cimon was generous, affable, magnificent. He had inherited 
the military genius of his father, Miltiades, and was the 
greatest commander of his time. Pericles was inferior to 
Cimon in military talent, but surpassed him in eloquence, 
love of literature, and relish for the fine arts. His mind had 
received the highest polish which that period was capable of 
giving. To oratory in particular he had devoted much 
attention, as an indispensable instrument for swaying the 
public assemblies. By birth, station, and temperament, he 
was naturally inclined to take side with the rich. But, see- 
ing Cimon trusted by the aristocracy, he joined the party of 
the people. At first he caressed the populace. But, when 
he had obtained due control of them, he did not hesitate, as 
justice or public interest required, to oppose their wishes. 
His extraordinary influence he owed to his eloquence, ad- 
ministrative talents, and unspotted integrity. 

Battle at the Eurymedon (b. c. 465). — The year 
466 b. c. was marked by the memorable battle of Euryme- 
don. Cimon, at the head of 200 Athenian triremes and 100 
furnished by the allies, proceeded to the coast of Asia 

21 



242 GREECE. Chapt. XI. 

Minor, where he expelled the Persians from several towns in 
Caria and Lycia. Meanwhile the Persians assembled a large 
armament at the mouth of the river Eurymedon, in Pam- 
phylia. The fleet consisted of 200 ships, chiefly Phoenicians, 
and a reinforcement of 80 more was expected. Cimon, 
knowing this, lost no time in making an attack. After 
speedily capturing or destroying most of the ships, he led 
his troops against the Persians who were drawn up on the 
shore. The enemy received the first shock with great firm- 
ness, but were at length put to the rout. Not yet satisfied, 
Cimon again set sail, and was so fortunate as to destroy also 
the other squadron of 80 vessels. 

Revolt of the Helots (b. c. 464-455).— In the year 
464 B. c, Lacedaemon was visited by an earthquake, which 
laid it in ruins, and cost the lives of a great number of the 
inhabitants, many of them Spartans. Thereupon the Helots 
flew to arms ; and, being joined by some of the Perioeci, 
marched straight upon Sparta. Though repulsed, they still 
kept the field ; and, receiving aid from the Messenians, for- 
tified themselves in Mount Ithome. After vainly attempting 
to dislodge them, the Lacedaemonians called in the assist- 
ance of their allies, and, among the rest, of the Athenians. 

Ineffectual Aid afforded by Cimon. — With great 
difficulty Cimon persuaded his countrymen to send him with 
4,000 hoplites to the assistance of Lacedaemon. The aid of 
the Athenians had been solicited on account of their ac- 
knowledged superiority in the art of attacking fortified 
places. As, however, Cimon did not succeed in dislodging 
the Helots, the Lacedaemonians, suspecting a want of good 
will, abruptly dismissed him. The other allies were retained 
and the siege continued ; but the revolt was not put down 
till the year 455 B. c. 

Full-blown Athenian Democracy. — The popular 
party had from the first opposed the expedition. Its failure, 
coupled with the insulting dismissal of Cimon, afforded an 
opportunity for ruining that leader and weakening his party. 
Henceforth the election to magistracies, the office of strate- 
gus, with some others excepted, was made dependent upon 
lot. Paid dicasteries, or jury-courts, were instituted. The 
judicial power of the senate of Areopagus, already impaired 
by previous measures, was still further diminished. These 
changes, as we may well suppose, were not effected without 
violent party strife. In the heat of political contention, 



j 



b. c. 479-431. Supremacy b£ Athens. 243 

recourse was had to ostracism, and Cimon was banished 
(b. c. 461). But before the ten years were expired, he was 
recalled on the motion of Pericles himself. 

Athenian Power at its Height (b. c. 461-447). — 
From the ostracism of Cimon, the long administration of 
Pericles may be said to have commenced. A disciple of 
Themistocles in politics, his aim was to secure for Athens 
the supremacy in Greece. Already her maritime power was 
preponderant. This was further increased; and soon all the 
states of the Delian confederacy, with the exception of Chios, 
Lesbos, and Samos, became her tributaries. At the same 
time, by means of alliances and conquests her influence was 
made predominant from the Gulf of Corinth to the Straits 
of Thermopylae — Meg&ra, Bceotia, Phocis, and Locris, to- 
gether with Trcezen and Achaia, being brought under her 
control. But this, her empire on land, was destined to vanish 
even more speedily than it had been acquired. 

The - Thirty Years' Truce (b. c. 445). — The jealousy 
of Sparta, the impatience of foreign control inherent to the 
Grecian mind, which looked upon separate town autonomy 
as essential to a freeman and a citizen, the cessation of hos- 
tilities with Persia and, consequent disappearance of the mo- 
tive which brought about the confederacy of Delos, the use 
made by Athens of her headship for private purposes — were 
so many causes which betokened ruin, sooner or later, to 
Athenian supremacy. In 447 b. C, the fabric of her land- 
empire began to be shattered by the successful revolt of 
Bceotia. Phocis, Locris, and Megara, also shook off the 
yoke ; and a Spartan army, invading Attica, further increased 
the difficulties of the Athenian government. The crisis, 
however, was met by Pericles with firmness and wisdom. 
He concluded with Sparta and her allies a thirty years' truce, 
which procured for Athens a long term of repose. 

Administration of Pericles. — About two years after 
the conclusion of this truce, the aristocracy, under the leader- 
ship of Thucydldes, a relation of Cimon, made fresh efforts 
to regain power. Their exertions had no other result than 
the exile of their chief by ostracism, and the complete pros- 
tration of their party. From this time Pericles enjoyed the 
sole direction of affairs. Under his administration, Athens 
truly became the queen of cities. Within a few years (b. c. 
445-431), she saw the erection of the Odeon, a theatre in- 
tended for musical and poetical representations ; of the 



244. GREECE. Chapt. XII. 

Parthenon, a splendid temple of Athene, adorned with 
masterpieces of decorative sculpture, friezes, and reliefs; 
lastly, of the Propylcea, a magnificent entrance to the 
Acropolis. Besides these ornamental works, Pericles under- 
took others of a useful kind. Two walls about 4 miles in 
length had already been constructed to connect Piraeus and 
Phalerum with Athens. A third, parallel to the former, was 
now built to render the communication between Athens and 
the Piraeus still more secure. At the same time, the Piraeus 
itself was improved by the construction of a new dock and 
arsenal, said to have cost iooj talents. — Of the works of 
art, artists, and writers belonging to this period, an account 
will be given in a subsequent chapter. 

Indirect Attacks on Pericles. — Pericles, despite his 
influence with the mass of the people, had bitter enemies, 
who assailed him through his private connections, and even 
endeavored to wound his honor by a charge of peculation. 
After divorcing a wife with whom he had lived unhappily, 
he took Aspasia to live with him. She was a native of Mile- 
tus, distinguished for mental culture and personal accom- 
plishments. Their intimacy with Anaxagoras afforded the 
enemies of Pericles a pretext for including Aspasia in the 
charge of impiety brought against the philosopher. Pericles 
himself pleaded the cause of his mistress ; and, on this occa- 
sion, the statesman whom the most violent storms of the 
assembly could not deprive of his self-possession, was for 
once seen to weep. Aspasia was acquitted ; but a fresh trial 
awaited Pericles. An indictment, in which he himself was 
included, was preferred against Phidias, for embezzlement of 
the gold intended to adorn the celebrated ivory statue of 
Athene. Fortunately, the gold had been so fixed that it 
could be detached and weighed, and thus the groundless- 
ness of the charge was easily made evident. Phidias, how- 
ever, died in prison before the day of trial. 



CHAPTER XII. 

The Peloponnesian War. — b. c. 431-404. 

Aims and Forces of the Belligerents. — The strug- 
gle known as the Peloponnesian war, was in reality a war for 
supremacy between the two great powers of Greece, Athens 



B. C. 431-404. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 245 

and Sparta. The former fought to preserve her empire ; the 
latter, while professing no other aim than the liberation of 
Greece, wished to supplant a rival. The war, involving 
almost every Grecian state, extended from Sicily to Cnidus 
and" Rhodes in the ^Lgean, On the side of Sparta were 
ranged the whole Peloponnesus, except Argos and Achaiaj 
together with the Megarians, Boeotians, Phocians, Opuntiari 
Locrians, Ambraciots, Leucadians, and Anactorians. The 
force collected from these tribes consisted chiefly of hoplites, 
or heavy-armed foot-soldiers ; but Bceotia, Phocis, and Loc-^ 
ris, also supplied some excellent cavalry. A good navy was 
the great deficiency on the side of the Peloponnesians, 
though Corinth and several other cities furnished ships. 

The allies of Athens, with the exception of the Thessalians, 
Acarnanians, Messenians at Naupactus, and Plataeans, were all 
insular, and consisted of the Chians, Lesbians, Corcyreans, 
Zacynthians, and Cephallenians. To these must be added 
her tributary towns on the coast of Thrace and Asia Minor, 
together with all the islands north of Crete, except Melos and 
Thera. The resources of Athens consisted of 300 triremes 
ready for active service, 1200 cavalry, 1600 bowmen, and 
29,000 hoplites. 

Invasion of Attica (b. c. 431). — The occasion of this 
war was a difficulty between Corinth and Corcyra, one of her 
colonies. Athens took sides with the latter, and the former 
appealed to the Dorian confederacy for support. Thereupon 
the Lacedaemonians issued orders to their allies to send, by 
a certain day, two thirds of their disposable troops to the 
isthmus of Corinth. Here Archidamus, king of Sparta, 
assumed the command ; and, at the head of some 80,000 men 
— the greater .part of them animated with bitter hatred and 
jealousy of Athens — began to ravage Attica. Unable to cope 
in the open field with so superior a force, the inhabitants 
with their families and goods took refuge either in Athens 
itself, or in the vast space within the long walls. The cattle 
were, for the most part, conveyed to Eubcea or some other 
of the adjoining islands. 

Athenian Operations. — Whilst the Attic territory was 
thus abandoned to the enemy, Pericles sent out two fleets to 
retaliate on the invaders. The Athenians made descents at 
various points, on the coast of Peloponnesus and elsewhere, 
inflicting considerable damage. Their last naval operation 
of the year was the total expulsion of the yEginetans from 



246 GREECE. Chapt. XII. 

their island. After the withdrawal of the Peloponnesians, 
Pericles, at the head of 13,000 hoplites and a large force 
of light-armed troops, marched into the Megarid, which he 
ravaged up to the very gates of the capital. The Athenians 
repeated the same ravages once, and sometimes twice, every 
year whilst the war lasted. 

Funeral Oration by Pericles. — At the end of an 
expedition, it was the custom at Athens to celebrate, with 
suitable encomium, the obsequies of those who had fallen. 
Pericles, on this occasion, was chosen to deliver the commem- 
orative discourse. His speech, or at least the substance of 
it, as preserved by Thucydides, is a valuable monument of 
eloquence and patriotism, particularly interesting for the 
sketch which it contains of Athenian manners, as well as of 
the Athenian constitution. The picture of Athens in her 
social glory, which this memorable eulogy contains, was well 
calculated both to rouse the pride, and nerve the courage, of 
those individual citizens who had been compelled once and 
would be compelled again and again, to abandon their 
country residence and fields for a thin tent or confined hole 
in the city. The bright colors and tone of cheerful confi- 
dence, which pervade this discourse, are, alas ! in sad contrast 
with the awful calamity ready to burst upon devoted Athens. 
— The law which provided the public interment of those slain 
in battle, assigned also maintenance at the public expense to 
their children until they attained the military age. 

Plague at Athens (b. c. 430-425). — Whilst the Pelop- 
onnesians were renewing their invasion of Attica, the 
second year of the war, the Athenians were attacked by a 
still more formidable enemy. A plague broke out in the 
crowded city. A great proportion of those who were seized, 
perished in from seven to nine days. Even in those who 
recovered, it generally left behind some dreadful and in- 
curable distemper, sometimes even a complete loss of 
memory. The physicians finding no remedy in the re- 
sources of their art, despair seized every one ; and many 
abandoned themselves to all manner of excess, debauchery, 
and crime. Those alone who had recovered from the dis- 
order, formed the single exception to the all-pervading 
misery of the time, as experience proved that the disease 
seldom attacked anyone twice, and the relapse was never 
fatal. Three years altogether did this calamity desolate 
Athens. Out of 1200 horsemen, who were the richest class 



B. C. 43I-404. THF PELO^OtfNESlAN WAR. ^f 

of citizens, 300 died of the epidemic ; and out of the hop- 
lites, 4,400. Of the victims among the poorer part of the 
population, the number has not been preserved. But there 
can be no doubt, that the death-rate among these was much 
higher. Grateful posterity has recorded the devotedness of 
the celebrated physician Hippocrates, in behalf of the plague- 
stricken Athenians. Disdaining the splendid offers of the 
Persian king, he did not leave the city till the contagion had 
entirely disappeared. 

The Eclipse (b. c. 430). — Pericles conducted in person 
the naval expedition which made descents on the Pelopon- 
nesian coast, the second year of the war. As he was pre- 
paring to set sail, an eclipse of the sun, bringing on sudden 
darkness, occasioned great consternation among the seamen, 
who deemed the occurrence an unfavorable omen. Cover- 
ing the pilot's eye with his cloak, Pericles asked whether he 
considered this action a presage of evil. The pilot answered 
in the negative. "Then," said Pericles, "where is the dif- 
ference in the two circumstances, except that some object 
larger than my cloak causes the eclipse?" 

Death of Pericles (b. c. 429). — Pericles did not long 
survive this expedition, and his life closed amidst a train of 
domestic calamities. The epidemic carried off not only 
many of his friends, but a 1 so several members of his family, 
among others, his sister and his only two legitimate sons. 
At the obsequies of the younger, when it became his duty 
to place a wreath on the body, his grief became uncontrol- 
lable, and he burst out into profuse tears and sobbing. His 
own strength of body and mind was gradually undermined 
by a low, lingering fever, which succeeded an attack of the 
prevailing epidemic. His last moments, were are told, were 
cheered by the thought that no Athenian had ever put on 
mourning through any action of his. 

His Character. — The career of Pericles is without 
parallel in the history of Athens. Not only did he maintain, 
for nearly 40 years, the first place among distinguished 
statesmen; but, during his last 15 years, he was annually 
reelected to the office of strategics. His long-continued 
supremacy and unmatched eloquence, are attested even by 
his bitterest opponents. His copiousness and grace of dic- 
tion, coupled with the force and cogency of his arguments, 
made Eupolis say, that persuasion itself sat upon his lips , 
and Aristophanes characterized his eloquence as producing 



248 GREECE. Chapt. XII. 

the same effects upon the social elements, as a storm of 
thunder and lightning exerts upon the atmosphere. He 
combined in a singular degree the power of persuasion, with 
that more rapid and abrupt style of oratory which takes an 
audience by storm, and defies all resistance. It is true that 
Aristotle and Plato unite in condemning his political innova- 
tions, whereby he made the humblest citizens a partaker in 
all the judicial and legislative functions of the state, and even 
paid him for the performance of them. But if Pericles the 
statesman be not deserving of unqualified praise, Pericles — 
the consummate genius and liberal patron of literature and 
art — is undoubtedly worthy of the highest admiration. He 
has justly given his name to the most brilliant intellectual 
epoch that the world has ever seen. 

Siege of Plat^ea (b. c. 429-427). — In the third year of 
the war, Archidamus led his whole force against the town 
of Plataea. Before the approach of the enemy, the inhabi- 
tants removed to Athens ; and the garrison, left to defend 
the place, consisted of only 400 citizens and 80 Athenians, 
together with no women to manage their household affairs. 
Vet, this insignificant force repulsed all the assaults of the 
besiegers. The latter, unable to take the place by storm, 
turned the siege into a blockade, and built a double wall 
around Plataea, so as both to prevent all egress and to 
reduce the place by famine. One half of the besieged, 
however, when the provisions were nearly consumed, avail- 
ing themselves of a dark and stormy night, made good their 
escape. The rest, after surrendering, were arraigned before 
five Spartan commissaries, who merely asked the prisoners 
whether, during the present war, they had rendered any 
assistance to the Peloponnesian confederacy. Upon their 
negative answer, they were immediately led away to ex- 
ecution. The town of Plataea was transferred to the Thebans, 
who levelled it to the ground. 

Atrocious features of the War. — Though the Pelo- 
ponnesians durst not cope with the enemy on the open sea, 
yet their privateers inflicted considerable loss on the Athe- 
nian fisheries and commerce. A revolting feature of this pred- 
atory warfare, was the cruelty with which the Lacedaemonians 
treated their prisoners. They were mercilessly slain, and 
their bodies cast into clefts and ravines. The Athenians 
retaliated by putting to death, without even the form of a 
trial, Peloponnesian envoys to the Persian court who fell 



B. C. 431-404. THfi P£LOK)NNESIAN WAR. £4$ 

into their hands. The cruelty inherent to ancient warfare 
was still more strikingly displayed, when, after putting down 
the revolt of Mytilene, a thousand prisoners implicated in 
the rebellion were sent to Athens and there put to death. 
The fortifications of the city were raised, and the lands 
given over to Athenian settlers. 

Corcyrean Revolutions (429-425). — Notless shocking 
were the cruel deeds perpetrated at Corcyra. Some Corey - 
reans who had been detained as prisoners at Corinth, were 
released and sent back to Corcyra, nominally under the 
heavy ransom of 800 talents, but in reality with the view of 
withdrawing the island from the Athenian alliance. With 
the help of the oligarchal citizens, these exiles on their 
return assassinated the leaders of the democratical party ; 
and, proceeding to put down that party by force, seized the 
harbor, the arsenal, and the market-place. The people, how- 
ever, having got possession of the higher parts of the town, 
defended themselves bravely, till the arrival of an Athenian 
squadron restored peace between the parties But, soon, the 
appearance of a large Peloponnesian fleet once more embold- 
ened the oligarchs. Thereupon the fury of the people 
knew no bounds. The vengeance which they took on their 
opponents, was fearful. The most sacred sanctuaries afforded 
no protection; the nearest ties of blood and kindred were 
sacrificed to civil hatred. About 506 oligarchs, however, 
effected their escape, and fortified themselves on mount 
Istone, not far from the capital, where, aided by mercenaries, 
they maintained themselves for nearly two years by a system 
of ravage and plunder, which inflicted great misery on the 
island. At last, they surrendered on condition of being sent 
to Athens, and left to the discretion of the Athenian people. 
But the terms of the capitulation being violated, some were 
summarily put to death by their Corcyrean enemies, and 
the rest, about 300 in number, chose to die by their c*vn 
hands. The women taken along with them, were sold as 
slaves. Similar cruelties engendered by the bitterness of 
political animosities, occurred at this time in various other 
Hellenic states. 

Capture of Sphacteria (b. c. 425). — The most notable 
event of the seventh year of the war, was the capture of 
Sphacteria, a small island on the western coast of Pelopon- 
nesus, which shuts in the modern bay of Navarino. A 
happy train of events enabled the Athenians to blockade in 



gjO GREECE, Cu.\rr. XII. 

this island, the flower of the Lacedaemonian* army, many of 
them native Spartans of the highest families. I ho force 
thus shut up consisted of no more than about 420 men. 
But such was the awe inspired by the reputation of the 
Spartan arms, that the Athenian commanders, Demosthenes 
and Clcon, considered it necessary to concentrate against 
them no (ewer than 10,000 soldiers of different descriptions, 
among whom were 800 Athenian hoplites, The light armed 
troops were divided into small bodies, which were to hover 
round and among the enemy : the hoplites were drawn up 
in battle array near the spot \\ here they had landed, Against 
these, Epitaaes, the Lacedaemonian commander, advanced 
over difficult ground, and amidst a shower of missiles from 
the light troops on his Ranks and rear, In vain did he 
order the most active among his followers to rush upon the 
assailants. Pursuers with spear aiul shield could not over- 
take men lightly clad aiul armed, who always retired before 
the enemy, to draw near again and redouble their annoyance, 
.so soon as the latter resumed their place in the ranks. The 
1 acedtemonians, distressed by tins species of warfare, at last 
retreated to a strong position at the extremity of the island, 
l u-10 the) kept their assailants at bay, till some Messenians, 
stealing ovei crags and cliffs which were deemed impractical 
Me, suddenly appeared on the high ground which overhung 
their rear, and began to overpower them with arrows, jave- 
lins, and stones. Unable to defend themselves any longer, 
the survivors, 29a in number, surrendered, By this act the 
prestige of Sparta was greatly impaired j the previous teats 
of the Spartans having inspired the notion that they would 

rather die than \ ield, 

Exn 01 is of BnAsiDAS (b, c, 4^4-4- A - The good for- 
tune of the Athenians had now ieaelu\l its culminating point, 

But, before long, the defeat of Delium inflicted upon them 

by the Boeotians, aiul especially the less of their empire 

in rhrace, more than counterbalanced the advantages 
they had previously gained. With no other resource than 
Ins own personal ascendency, the Spartan Brasidas took 
upon himself the task of striking a fatal blow at the powei 
0] Athens, In , the Grecian cities of rhrace from hei 

yoke, By dmt of boldness and activity, as well as by kind 
and concuiatii leanor, he detached in succession from 

her empire Olvnthus, Aeanthus, Stagirus, Axgilus, and ever 
Amphipolis — the most important of her foreign pOSSessioi 



»:. i. -\ \\ 404, mt i'i 1 OPONNGSIAN WAS 1«1 

A truce, concluded at tins Juncture, arrested the progress oi 
Brasidas, But, mum the resumption oi hostilities, when an 
eflort \n .ts made bj Cleon to retake Amphipolis, he routed 
the Athenians with great slaughtei A mortal wound, how 
ever, which he received in the charge, freed Athena from hei 
most dangerous enem) . and a peace foi 50 years, commonly 
called the Peace of i\.^ ias, was cone uded on the basia oi a 
mutual restitution < ( t prisoners and captured places, Un 
happily, Athens nourished In hei bosom a son that waa soon 
to undo the peaceful work <»t Niciaa, 

Alcibiades traced ins paternal descent from the heroes 
Eurysaces and Ajax, whilst on his mother's side he claimed 
relationship with the Alcmeeonidre, Prom early youth his 
conduct was marked i»\ violence, recklessness, and vanity 1 But 
in-; beauty had made mm the darling oi the Athenian ladies] 
nor did thr men, blinded by ii • riches, talents, and high 
birth, regard him with less admiration, He possessed both 
boldness oi design and vigor oi execution ; and, though still 
young, had distinguished himscli by great personal braveryi 
I'm he waa utterly destitute oi morality, whethei publit oi 
private, Such was the man who waa to plunge Athena once 
more into all the horrors oi war, and to bring upon hei an 
endlesa train of misei iea. 

\V.\u hi r\\ I 1 ■ n Aia. os A.ND CORINTH (B. Ci I II I > (,) 

Some of the most powei ful alius oi Spai ta refused to ■>> * ept 
the peace oi Nuns. Corinth especially showed herself inde 
fatigable in forming coalitions against Athens, Tocounterai 1 
her influence, the Athenians, at the suggestion »»t Alcibiades, 
whose motive waa personal pique, organised "> Peloponnesus > 

COUntei league With ArgOS at its head. War Kim; now 

declared between Argoa and Corinth, Sparta took the field 
against the former, ami Athena against the latter. 1 hus, 
though there waa peace between the Atheniana ami the 
Lacedaemonians, ami though they abstained from direct 
attai ka upon each other's territories, they once more met in 
conflict. At tlu- end of two years,-king Agia gained over 
the Argivea ami their allies the great \ i* c* >f s »>i Mantinea, 
which enabled the oligarchial party at Argoa <<» regain the 
preponderance and bring the city oncemorc into the Pelo 
ponnesian league, But the oligarchs abused their power. 
Bryas, the captain of a chosen body of 1000 hoplites, ravished 
from tin- very midst «>i a wedding procession a bride «>t iii<- 
humbler class, and carried her t>» Ins h0U8Qi At nlght,ahe 



252 



GREECE. Chapt. XII. 



put out the eyes of the tyrant with the pin of her brooch ; 
and, having effected her escape, roused by her tale of woe the 
indignation of the people. The latter rose against the 
aristocrats, obtained possession of the city, and renewed 
their alliance with Athens. 

Conquest of Melos by the Athenians (b. c. 416). — 
The island of Melos, a colony of Sparta, did not belong to 
the Athenian alliance. As the Melians refused to submit 
voluntarily to Athens, the latter, without any other provoca- 
tion than the refusal, but likely by a desire of humiliating 
Sparta through her colony, blockaded Melos by sea and land, 
and forced it to surrender. On the proposal, as it appears, 
of Alcibiades, all the adult males were put to death, the 
women and children sold into slavery, and the lands given 
over to 500 Athenian settlers — a proceeding the more inde- 
fensible, as Athens had attacked the Melians in full peace. 
Her empire from this period began rapidly to decline. 

Athenian Expedition to Sicily (b. c. 415). — A 
quarrel had broken out between the two Sicilian towns of 
Egesta and Selinus ; and the latter, having obtained the aid 
of Syracuse, was pressing very hard upon the Egestaeans. 
These, therefore, applied for help to Athens, representing 
how fatal it would be to her, if the Dorians prevailed in 
Sicily, and joined the Peloponnesian confederacy. Their 
application was supported by Alcibiades, who beheld in a 
distant expedition the means of gratifying his passion for 
adventure, as well as of retrieving his fortune, which had 
been dilapidated by extravagant expenditure. Carried away 
by his bold eloquence, and dazzled by the idea of conquer- 
ing, not only Syracuse, but even the whole of Sicily, the 
Athenians voted the expedition, and began to make prepara- 
tions for it on a scale commensurate with the enterprise. 
Young and old, rich and poor, all vied with one another to 
obtain a share in the expedition. 

Destruction of the Athenian Armament before 
Syracuse (b. c. 415-413). — The mighty armament set on 
foot for the conquest of Sicily, was placed under the com- 
mand of Alcibiades, Nicias, and Lamachus Alcibiades, 
who had conceived the project, was also the only man able 
to deal with all the peculiar difficulties of the expedition. 
His conduct having rendered him an obiect of suspicion to 
the popular party at home, he was unfortunately recalled, 
when, fearing for his safety, he fled to Sparta, revealed the 



B. C. 431-404. THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 253 

plans of his countrymen to their enemies, and taught the 
Lacedaemonians how to frustrate them. The departure of 
Alcibiades, and soon after the death of Lamachus, left 
Nicias sole commander of the Athenian army. This gen- 
eral had already approached Syracuse ; and the city, block- 
aded by sea and almost entirely surrounded by land, 
seemed on the point of surrendering. But want of vigor on 
his part, and the arrival of the Spartan Gylippus, suddenly 
changed the aspect of affairs. The Athenians suffered a 
double defeat on sea and land. Nicias thereupon sent for 
aid to Athens, and received powerful reinforcement under 
Demosthenes and Eurymedon. More vigorous measures 
were now adopted by the Athenian commanders. All their 
efforts, however, proving of no avail, they resolved to 
abandon the siege, and were on the point of quitting their 
ill-fated quarters, when an eclipse of the moon took place. 
The soothsayers being consulted said that the army must 
wait thrice nine days— a full circle of the moon — before de- 
parting. By this decision the devout Nicias resolved to 
abide. Meanwhile the Syracusans, penetrating the intentions 
of the besieged, so vigorously attacked the Athenian fleet in 
the harbor, and so harassed the land army during its retreat, 
that all the ships were taken or destroyed, and all the soldiers 
slain or made prisoners. Ten thousand captives — the rem- 
nant of 40,000 — were confined in the stone-quarries of the 
neighborhood. Here they were crowded together without 
any shelter, and with scarcely provisions enough to sustain 
life. The bodies of those who died, were left to putrify 
where they fell, till the fear of pestilence induced the Syra- 
cusans, at the end of 70 days, to remove the survivors, 
who were sold as slaves. Both Nicias and Demosthenes 
were put to death. 

The Spartans occupy Decelea (b. c. 413). — The 
Spartans, who had witnessed the first success of the Athe- 
nians before Syracuse with great jealousy, were not content 
with sending Gylippus to the aid of the besieged ; but dis- 
carding, after eight years, the worn-out fiction of a pretended 
amity with Athens, resolved once more to marshal the whole 
Peloponnesian force against their rival. So soon, therefore, 
as the departure of the reinforcements sent to Nicias left 
Attica in a comparatively defenceless state, king Agis in- 
vaded it ; and, following the advice of Alcibiades, established 
a garrison at Decelea, a post situated about 14 miles from 
22 



254 



GREECE. Chapt. XII. 



Athens and commanding the Athenian plain. The city was 
thus placed in a state of siege, and scarcity was soon felt 
within the walls. Then came the destruction of the Sicilian 
armament, which gave to the Peloponnesians the command 
of the sea, and encouraged the subject- allies of Athens to 
shake off the yoke. To crown all, Sparta concluded an 
alliance with the Persians, whereby she obtained all the gold 
necessary to complete the ruin of her rival. Asia Minor, 
the islands, and the Hellespont, were henceforth to be the 
theatre of war. 

Battle of Cyzicus (b. c. 410), Arginus^e (b. c. 406), 
^Egospotami (b. c. 405). — Athens now seemed on the 
brink of ruin. But her wonderful elasticity of spirit, her 
indomitable energy, and fertility of resource, enabled her to 
prolong the contest, and gain such triumphs as made the 
final issue once more appear doubtful. Even in her decli- 
ning fortune she was cheered by the great victory of Cyzicus, 
gained by Alcibiades, who now cordially cooperated with 
his countrymen, and that of Arginusae, one of the most ob- 
stinately disputed of the war. But these very successes, by 
filling the Athenians with excessive confidence, contributed 
to the final ruin of the state. The Spartan admiral Lysan- 
der, who commanded the enemy's fleet, by feigning cowar- 
dice, increased in his opponents those feelings of security. 
The Athenians, with 180 triremes, met him at the strait of 
the Hellespont, and offered him battle near the mouth of a 
small iver called ^Egospotami. But, although his vessels 
and troops seemed ready for action, he did not move from 
his position. The enemy came four days in succession to 
make the same offer; the Lacedaemonians still remained 
motionless. Nothing could now equal the confidence and 
security of the Athenians. Lysander, fully aware of the 
circumstance, waited, on the fifth day, till they had returned 
to their station, and the soldiers had, as usual, left the vessels to 
scatter themselves and take repose on the shore. Just at 
that moment, the Spartan fleet bore down upon them, and 
without meeting any resistance captured the empty ships, 
except a small squadron with which Conon made his escape. 
Lysander then landed, and most of the crews were made 
prisoners on shore. The victory was obtained, not merely 
without the loss of a single ship, but almost without that of 
a single man. All the Athenian prisoners, nearly 4,000 in 
number, were put to death. This blow virtually ended the 



6. c. 404-403. the thirty Tyrants. 254 

Peloponnesian war. The closing scene, however, was en- 
acted at Athens itself. 

Fall of Athens (b, c. 404). — From the scene of his 
triumph the Spartan admiral proceeded to blockade Athens 
by sea, while Agis invested it by land. The city, cut off 
from its usual supplies, soon felt all the horrors of famine, 
and at the end of five months was forced to surrender at dis- 
cretion. The Athenians were ordered to confine themselves 
within the borders of Attica, to demolish their fortifications, 
to deliver up all their ships but twelve, to place themselves 
under the leadership of Sparta, and be in readiness to serve, 
as directed, by sea or land. Hard as were these terms, they 
did not satisfy the Thebans, the Corinthians, and others of 
the more bitter enemies of Athens, who urged the very ex- 
tinction of her name, and the sale of her whole population 
into slavery. Thus fell imperial Athens, in the seventy-third 
year after the formation of the confederacy of Delos, If, 
during the interval, she had committed many mistakes and 
much injustice, she had also used the power won in that 
brief career for the noblest of purposes, averting an over- 
whelming deluge of barbarism, and becoming the nurse of 
literature and art. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

The Thirty Tyrants. — b. c. 404-403. 

Return of the Oligarchal Exiles. — In consequence 
of an attempt to overthrow the Athenian democracy and re- 
place it by an oligarchal government, a number of conspira- 
tors had been banished. That these should be recalled, was 
one of the conditions imposed upon the Athenians by Ly- 
sander. In consequence, a host of exiles reentered Athens, 
all of them enemies of her democratical institutions. By 
these men clubs were organized, and plans formed for the 
immediate establishment of an oligarchy. 

The Thirty. — The first step of the conspirators was to 
procure the arrest of the leaders of the democratical party, 
whom they accused of a design to overturn the peace just made 
with Sparta. The way being thus prepared, they invited 



2 5 6 GREECE. Chapt. Xill. 

Lysander into the city , In his presence, it was proposed in 
the assembly that a committee of thirty should be named to 
draw up laws for the future government of the state, and to 
undertake its temporary administration. The proposal was 
of course carried, and the chief oligarchs were designated to 
compose the new board, of administrators. Most conspicuous 
among these were Theramenes and Critias — the latter a man 
distinguished for his literary and political talents, an uncle 
of Plato, and once the intimate friend of Socrates. 

Proceedings of the Thirty. — The Thirty at once 
named an entirely new senate and appointed fresh magistrates, 
all chosen from among their adherents. They next proceeded 
to rid themselves of their most obnoxious opponents, whose 
condemnation they insured by presiding in person over the 
tribunals, and obliging the senators to deposit their voting 
pebbles immediately under their own eyes. Even the show 
of legality was in many cases dispensed with, and the 
accused were put to death by the mere order of the Thirty. 
Nay more, a band of assassins was organized, and blood 
flowed on all sides. Meanwhile a Spartan garrison, installed 
in the Acropolis, overawed the people. 

Proscriptions. — The board of Thirty bestowed the fran- 
chise on 3000 citizens, chiefly their own adherents. The 
rest were disarmed, and a regular proscription took place. 
A list was drawn up of those who were deemed dangerous 
and irreconcilable enemies to the new order of things. In 
this number, the adherents of the Thirty were permitted to 
insert whatever names they pleased, and many a man was 
put to death merely for the sake of obtaining his wealth. 

Suppression of Intellectual Culture. — The tyrants 
even took means to repress all intellectual culture, and to 
convert the government into one of brute force, A decree 
was promulgated, forbidding the teaching of the ( art of 
words/ under which name were included logic, rhetoric, and 
literature in general. The decree was particularly levelled 
at those ingenious and learned men who went by the name of 
sophists. Socrates, the most distinguished among them, 
Who had commented with just severity on the enormities 
perpetrated by the Thirty, was summoned before Critias, and 
prohibited in future all conversation with youths. 

Death of Alcibiades (b. c 404). — No fewer perhaps 
than 1500 victims were slain without trial by the Thirty; 
others were banished. In the list of the latter, Alcibiades had 



B. C. 404-403. "THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 257 

been included ; and he was living in Phrygia, when a dispatch 
came from Sparta, directing Lysander to have him put to 
death. Lysander communicated the message to the satrap 
Pharnabazus, and executioners were sent who surrounded 
the house of their victim, and set it on fire. Alcibiades rushed 
out with drawn sword upon his assailants, who shrank 
from his attack, but slew him from a distance with their 
javelins and arrows. Thus perished this singular man, 
endowed with most of those qualities which constitute 
greatness — talent, enterprise, courage, great presence of mind, 
inexhaustible resources in emergencies ; but, at the same time, 
tainted by profligacy, selfishness, pride, rapacity, and utter 
want of principle. With endowments which might have 
rendered him the greatest benefactor of Athens, he attained 
the infamous distinction of her greatest injurer. 

Oppressive Yoke of Sparta. — The triumph of Sparta 
was the triumph, throughout Greece, of the oligarchal princi- 
ples. The condition of Athens under the Thirty, may be 
regarded as a sample of the Greek communities which the 
fortune of war placed at the mercy of Lacedaemon. By 
Lysander, governors that were either Spartans or creatures 
of Sparta, were established with indefinite powers in the 
cities which he had reduced: he himself, in the name of 
Sparta, exercised everywhere an uncontrolled authority. 
The Greeks soon discovered that, instead of the freedom 
promised by the Spartans, only another empire had been 
established, rendered more intolerable by the overweening 
pride and harshness of Lysander. 

Athenian Democracy Restored (b. c. 403).— Fallen 
Athens had ceased to be an object of jealousy. Many of 
her democratic exiles, who had sought refuge in Bceotia, 
found there sympathizers and supporters. So Thrasybulus, 
starting from Thebes at the head of a small band of fellow- 
exiles and Thebans, marched upon Athens, overthrew the 
Thirty, and prevailed upon the Peloponnesian garrison to 
quit Attica. After offering up a solemn sacrifice and thanks- 
giving in the Acropolis, an assembly of the people was held, 
and the democracy was restored. This important re solution 
appears to have taken place in the spring of 403 b. c. The 
archons, the senate of 500, the public assembly, and the 
dicasteries, after an interruption of eight months, were recon- 
stituted as before. But, though Athens thus obtained in- 
ternal peace, she was left a mere shadow of her former self. 



2 5 & GREECE. Chapt. XIV. 

Her fortifications, her fleet, her revenues, and the empire 
founded on them, had vanished. Her history henceforward 
consists of struggles, not to rule over others, but to maintain 
her independence. 



CHAPTER XIV. 



Architecture, Sculpture, and Painting at Athens, during 
the Period of her Supremacy. 

The Monuments of Athens. — Whilst Athens rose to 
the headship of Greece, she founded an empire of taste and 
genius far more glorious than her political supremacy, but 
especially far more lasting. Of her public buildings, dating 
from this period, the principal were the temple of Nike 
Apteros (wingless victory), the Theseum, the Pcecile Stoa 
(painted colonnade), the Propylsea, and the Parthenon. 

The temple of Nike, erected in commemoration of Cimon's 
victory at the Eurymedon, stood till A. d. 1672, when the 
Turks destroyed it in order to form a battery. But its re- 
mains were discovered in 1835, and it has been restored 
with the original materials. 

The Theseum, built to receive the bones of Theseus, 
which Cimon brought from Scyros, is the best preserved of 
all the monuments of ancient Athens. Though the sculp- 
tures, the subjects of which are the exploits of Hercules and 
Theseus, have sustained great injury, the temple itself is 
nearly perfect. It is of the Doric order, 104 feet in length 
by 45 feet broad ; and is surrounded with columns, of which 
there are 6 at each end and 13 at'the sides. It is less by its 
size than by its symmetry, that it impresses the beholder. 

The Pcecile" Stoa, which stood near' the Agora, or market- 
place, was an extensive colonnade formed by pillars on one 
side and a wall on the other. In panels fixed against the 
wall, were the paintings from which it derived its name. 

The Propylaea rose at the entrance of the Acropolis, at 
the top of a magnificent flight of marble steps, 70 feet broad. 
The Propylaea were themselves entirely of marble, and covered 
the whole of the western end of the Acropolis, having a 



B. 6\ 470-390. ARCHITECTURE AND SCULPTURE. 259 

breath of 168 feet. The central portion, 58 feet in width, 
consisted of two porticoes, each of which had a front of 6 
fluted Doric columns. The wings on each side were in the 
form of a Doric temple; one had its walls covered with 
paintings, the other was an open gallery. The cost of the 
Propylaea was nearly two and a half million dollars. 

But the pride of Athens was its Parthenon, or temple of 
Athena Parthenos (the virgin). It stood on the highest 
part of the Acropolis, and was, like the Propylaea, entirely 
of Pentelic marble. Its dimensions were about 228 feet in 
length, 101 in breadth, and 66 in height to the top of the 
pediment. It consisted of a cella, surrounded by a peristyle, 
which had 8 columns at either front, and 17 at either side. 
The cella was divided into two chambers of unequal size, 
whose ceiling was supported by rows of columns. The 
whole building was adorned with the most exquisite sculp- 
tures, executed by various artists under the direction of 
Phidias. But its chief wonder was the statue of the virgin 
goddess by Phidias himself, which stood in the principal 
chamber. Up to this time, colossal statues not of bronze, 
had only the face, hands, and feet of marble, the rest being 
of wood concealed by real drapery. But, in the statue of 
Athene, Phidias substituted ivory for marble in those parts 
which were uncovered, and supplied the place of the real 
drapery with robes and other ornaments of solid gold. Its 
height, including the base, was nearly 40 feet. It represented 
the goddess standing, clothed with a tunic reaching to the 
ankles, with a spear in her left hand, and an image of Victory 
in her right. She was girded with the aegis, * and had a 
helmet on her head, her shield resting on the ground by her 
side. 

The Acropolis was adorned with two other colossal figures 
of Athene in bronze, also the work of Phidias. The larger, 
called Athene Promachos,f stood in the open air between 
the Propylaea and the Parthenon, and rose to a height of 70 
feet, so that the point of its spear and the crest of its helmet 
were visible afar off, even from the sea. It was still stand- 
ing in a. d. 395, and is said to have scared away Alaric, 
when he came to sack the Acropolis. 

* A goat's skin, covered with scales, and adorned with the head 
of Medusa. % 

f The Defender, because it represented the goddess armed, and 
in the very attitude of battle. 



266 GREECE. Chapt. XIV. 

Another monument, which adorned the Acropolis, the 
Erechtheum, commenced by Pericles the year preceding 
the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war, was not com- 
pleted till 393 B. c. 

Artists of the Periclean Age. — Chief among the 
artists of this period stands Phidias, who superintended all 
the monumental constructions erected under the auspices of 
Pericles. The architects of the Parthenon and the other 
buildings, worked under his instructions. Besides the three 
statues of Athene just mentioned, he made the statue of the 
Olympian Jove — his masterpiece, for the great temple of 
Olympia, at Elis. This stupendous work was 60 feet high, 
of ivory and gold, embodying in visible majesty the grandest 
conceptions of Grecian poetry and religion. Its effect 
upon all beholders, we are told, was such as has never been 
equalled in the annals of art, sacred or profane. 

While Phidias excelled in statues of gods, his contempor- 
ary Polycletus excelled in those of men. In a competition 
for the statue of an Amazon, he carried away the palm from 
Phidias. The greatest of his works was the ivory-and-gold 
statue of Hera (Juno) in her temple between Argos and 
Mycense, which always remained the ideal model of the 
queen of the gods, as the Olympian Jove of Phidias was of 
the king of heaven. 

Contemporary also with Phidias, though somewhat older, 
was Polygnotus, the first Grecian painter of any great re- 
nown. Cimon brought him from Thasos to Athens, to 
adorn the Theseum and the Psecile Stoa. He excelled in 
accuracy of drawing, in the nobleness, grace, and beauty of 
his figures. But painting reached a further stage of progress 
in the hands of Apollodorus, Zeuxis, and Parrhasius, the 
greatest names of the period. 

Apollodorus, a native of Athens, first directed attention to 
the effect of light and shade in painting. Zeuxis and Parr- 
hasius are represented as great masters of colors. They 
were particularly celebrated for the accuracy of their draw- 
ing, and the excellent proportions of their figures. How 
life-like some of their paintings were, is shown by the follow- 
ing anecdote. As a trial of skill, they painted two pictures. 
That of Zeuxis represented a bunch of grapes, and was so 
naturally executed that the birds came and pecked at it. 
After this proof, Zeuxis, confident of success, called upon his 
rival to draw aside the curtain which concealed his picture. 



B. C. 556-442. GRECIAN LYRISTS. 26 1 

But the painting of Parrhasius was the curtain itself. The 
masterpiece of Zeuxis was his picture of Helen. Among 
the best of Parrhasius, was a portrait of the personified 
Athenian Demos (people), which is said to have expressed, 
as seen from different points, the most contradictory qualities 
of that many-headed personage. 



CHAPTER XV. 

Later Grecian Lyrists (b. c. 556-442). — Athenian Dramatists 

down to 3S0. 

Lyric Poetry; Simonides (556-467). — Lyric poetry 
attained its highest pitch of excellence in the hands . of 
Simonides and Pindar. Simonides, a native of Iulis in the 
island of Ceos, was from his youth trained up in music and 
poetry as a profession. For some years, he resided at the 
court of Hipparchus and Hippias, together with Anacreon, 
and Lasus of Hermione the teacher of Pindar. After the 
expulsion of Hippias, he spent some time in Thessaly. But, 
at the time of the Persian wars, we find him again residing at 
Athens, employed in celebrating the momentous events of 
that memorable epoch. He carried away the prize from 
.^ischylus with an elegy upon the warriors who had fallen at 
Marathon. He celebrated the heroes of Thermopylae, 
Artemisium, Salamis, and Plataea He was upwards of 80, 
when his long poetical career at Athens was closed by a last 
victory in a dithyrambic contest, making the 56th prize that 
he had won. The remaining ten years of his life were spent 
at Syracuse with Hiero, whom he entertained with his poetry, 
and instructed by his wisdom. 

Simonides employed himself on all the subjects which fell 
to the lyric poet, then the mouth-piece of human life with all 
its joys and sorrows, its hopes and disappointments. He 
wrote hymns, poems, elegies, dancing-songs, dithyrambs, 
epinician odes, and dirges, in which last he chiefly excelled. 
For his genius was inclined to the pathetic, and none could 
touch with truer effect the chords of human sympathy. 
But few fragments of this most prolific poet have descended 
to us. 



26-2 Greece. Chapt. xv. 

Pindar (b. c. about 522-442). — Pindar's family ranked 
among the noblest in Thebes. At an early age, he gave 
such indications of a poetic genius as induced his father to 
send him to Athens, where he might receive more perfect 
instruction in the art. Here he was the pupil of Lasus, of 
Hermione, who was the founder of the Athenian dithyrambic 
school. Later on, he profited by the example and lessons of 
two Theban poetesses, Myrtis and Corinna, who then 
enjoyed great celebrity in Bceotia. With these he contended 
for the prize in music ; and soon acquired such reputation, as 
to be employed by various states and princes to compose 
choral songs. He was courted especially by Alexander of 
Macedon, and by Hiero of Syracuse. But his own predilec- 
tions ran strongly in favor of the free states of Greece. To 
the Athenians, in particular, he was greatly attached, often 
praising them and their city in his poems. They testified 
their gratitude by making him their public guest, and 
bestowing upon him a donation of 10,000 drachmas; subse- 
quently, they erected a statue in his honor. 

The only poems of Pindar which have come down to us 
entire, are his Epinicia, or triumphal odes, commemorating 
victories in the great public games. He also wrote hymns, 
paeans, dithyrambs, odes for processions, drinking-songs, 
dirges, and panegyrics on princes. His style is marked by 
abrupt transitions, daring flights, and sublimity. With him 
ended the ancient school of lyric poetry. 

Origin of Tragedy and Comedy. — Both tragedy and 
comedy, in their rude incipient form, rose out of the worship 
of Dionysius (Bacchus). There was at first but little dis- 
tinction between these two species of the drama, except that 
comedy belonged more to the rural celebration of the Diony- 
siac festivals, and tragedy to that in "cities. The name of 
tragedy is said to have been derived from the goat-like 
appearance of those who, disguised as satyrs, performed the 
old Dionysiac songs and dances. In like manner, comedy 
was called after the song of the band of revellers, who cele- 
brated the vintage festivals of Bacchus, and vented their rude 
merriment in jibes and extempore witticisms levelled at the 
spectators. Tragedy, in its more perfect form, was the 
offspring of the dithyrambic odes with which the worship of 
Dionysius was Celebrated. These were not always of a joy- 
ous cast. Some of them expressed the sufferings of the 
god ; and it was from this more mournful species of dithyramb 



B. C. 53O-380. ATHENIAN DRAMATISTS. 263 

that tragedy, properly so called, arose. The dithyrambs, as 
improved by Arion, formed a kind of lyrical tragedy, and 
were sung by a chorus of fifty men, dancing round the altar 
of Dionysius. 

Thespis, a native of Attica, who flourished about B. c. 
530, was the first to give the dithyramb a really dramatic 
character. His innovation consisted in the introduction of 
an actor, for the purpose, it is said, of giving rest to the 
chorus. He probably appeared in that capacity himself, 
taking various parts in the piece by means of disguises 
effected by linen masks. Thus by his successive appearance 
in various characters, and by the dialogue which he main- 
tained with the chorus, or rather with its leader, a dramatic 
fable of tolerable complexity might be represented. He was 
succeeded, at Athens, by Chcerilus and Phrynicus. 

Satyric Drama. — Pratinas, a native of Phlius, who also 
exhibited his tragedies at Athens, introduced the next im- 
provement, by separating the satyric from the tragic drama. 
As neither the popular taste, nor the ancient religious asso- 
ciations connected with the festivals of Dionysius, would 
have permitted the chorus of Satyrs to be entirely banished 
from the tragic representations, Pratinas invented what is 
called the Satyric drama, that is, a species of play in which 
the ordinary subjects of tragedy were treated in a lively and 
farcical manner, and in which the chorus consisted of a band 
of Satyrs in appropriate dresses and masks. 

Tetralogies. — After Pratinas, it became customary to 
exhibit dramas in tetralogies, or sets of four; namely, a 
tragic trilogy, or series of three tragedies, followed by a 
Satyric play. These were often on connected subjects ; and 
the satyric drama, at the end, served like a merry after-piece, 
to relieve the minds of the spectators. We must recollect 
that the representations of tragedies took place at the festi- 
vals of Dionysius, of which they formed one of the greatest 
attractions. During the whole day, the Athenian public sat 
in the theatre witnessing tragedy after tragedy ; and a prize 
was awarded by judges appointed for the purpose to the 
poet who produced the best set of dramas. 

^Eschylus (b. C 525-456). — With ^Eschylus properly 
begins the splendid list of Athenian dramatists. His first 
play was exhibited in B. c. 500, when he was twenty-five 
years of age ; but it was not till 484 that he gained his first 
tragic prize. Defeated in a tragic contest by his younger 



264 



GREECE. Chapt. XV. 



rival Sophocles in 468, he retired to the court of king Hiero. 
Ten years later, we find him again at Athens, where he pro - 
duced his trilogy of the Oresteia, which was composed of 
the tragedies of the Agamemnon, the Cho'ephor<z, and the 
Eumenides. The defence of the Areopagus contained in the 
last of these, proved unpalatable to the new and more demo- 
cratic generation of Athenians ; and, either from disappoint- 
ment or fear of the consequences, ^Eschylus again quitted 
Athens, and retired once more to Sicily, where he died in 
456. Tradition relates that an eagle, mistaking the poet's 
bald head for a stone, let a tortoise fall upon it in order to 
break the shell, thus fulfilling an oracle predicting that he 
was to die by a blow from heaven. The Athenians, holding 
his memory in reverence, decreed that a chorus should be 
provided at the public expense for any one who might 
revive his tragedies. Hence it happened that they were fre- 
quently reproduced on the stage. Of the seventy which he 
is said to have written, only 7 are extant. 

^Eschylus introduced into tragedy a second actor 
and the use of painted scenes, together with more 
appropriate and more magnificent dresses, more varied and 
expressive masks, and lastly the thick-soled cothurni, or 
buskins, which raised the stature of the actors to the heroic 
size. From the introduction of a second actor aros^ the 
dialogue properly so called, and the limitations of the choral 
parts, which now became subsidiary. yEschylus paid great 
attention to the choral dances, and invented several new 
figures. But it is especially in its tone and style that tragedy 
was improved by this great master, who was regarded by 
the Athenians as its father or founder. He excelled in 
representing the superhuman, in depicting demigods and 
heroes, and in tracing the irresistible march of fate. His 
style resembles the ideas which it clothes. It is bold, 
sublime, and full of gorgeous imagery, but sometimes bor- 
ders on the turgid. 

Sophocles (b. c. 495-405) was early trained in music 
and gymnastics, as appears from the fact that, in his 16th 
year, he was chosen to lead, naked and with lyre in hand, the 
chorus which danced round the trophy, and sang the hymns 
of triumph, on the occasion of the victory of Salamis. He 
seems to have vwrested the prize from ^Eschylus, upon his 
very first appearance as a dramatist ; and from this time 
forward he retained the almost undisputed possession of 



B. C. 500-380. ATHENIAN DRAMATISTS. 265 

the Athenian stage, until a young but formidable rival arose 
in the person of Euripides. This, however, but served to 
spur him on to greater exertions, and the second half of his 
long life was the period of his greatest literary activity. 
When nearly 90, he was summoned before the tribesmen by 
his son lophon, who, on the ground that his mind was 
affected, wished to have him declared incapable of adminis- 
tering his estate. The old man's only reply was to read 
from his CEdipus at Colonics, just finished and not yet 
brought out, some passages with the beauty of which the 
judges were so struck that they at once dismissed the case. 
By all Sophocles is admitted to have brought the drama to 
its greatest perfection. His plays unite grace with sublimity ; 
and the development of the plots is so skillful that the 
interest of the piece increases through each succeeding act. 
By the introduction of a third actor, he greatly enlarged 
the scope of the action. He curtailed the length of the 
songs, and gave the chorus the character of an impartial 
spectator and judge.. Of his 117 tragedies, only 7 are 
extant. 

Euripides (b. c. 480-406) was born in the island of 
Salamis, where his mother, during the invasion of Attica by 
Xerxes, fled for safety. In early life he practised painting 
with some success ; but he devoted himself with more ear- 
nestness to philosophy and literature. He studied rhetoric 
under Prodicus, and physics under Anaxagoras, and also 
lived on intimate terms with Socrates. Euripides wrote a 
tragedy at 18, and .had his first play acted when he was 25 
years of age. It was not, however, till 441 that he gained 
his first prize. From that time he continued to exhibit plays 
to the very end of his life. 

Unlike his predecessors ^Eschylus and Sophocles, Euri- 
pides, in the treatment of subjects, freely departed from the 
received legends. A more serious innovation was his 
depriving tragedy of its ideal character, by bringing it down 
to the level of every-day life. His dialogue is often too gar- 
rulous and wanting in dignity, or frigid through misplaced 
philosophical disquisitions. His plays, however, have so 
many beauties, and are so remarkable for pathos, that 
Aristotle calls him the most tragic of poets. Eighteen of his 
tragedies are still extant. One of them, the Cyclops, is particu- 
larly interesting as the only surviving specimen of the Greek 
satyric drama. 

23 



2 66 GREECE. Chapt. XVI. 

The Old Attic Comedy : Aristophanes (b. c. 444- 
380). — Athenian comedy received its full development from 
Cratinus, who lived in the age of Pericles. Cratinus, and his 
younger contemporaries, Eupolis and Aristophanes, were the 
chief poets of what is called the old Attic comedy. Aristoph- 
anes, the greatest of the three, exhibited his first play in 
427 , and, from that time till near his death, was a frequent 
contributor to the Athenian stage. Most of the comedies of 
Aristophanes turned either upon political occurrences, or 
upon some other actual subject of public interest. His chief 
object was to excite laughter by the boldest and most ludi- 
crous — even if unjust — caricature. The gods, the institu- 
tions, the politicians, philosophers, poets, private citizens, 
and even the women, whose life at Athens was entirely 
domestic, are in turn held up to ridicule by the poet, who 
has at his command a poignancy of derision and satire, a 
fecundity of imagination, and a richness of poetical expres- 
sion that cannot be surpassed. Towards the end of the 
career of Aristophanes, the unrestricted license and libellous 
personality of comedy began to give offence. The chorus, 
which was the chief vehicle of satire, was first curtailed, and 
then entirely suppressed. Thus sprung up what is called the 
Middle Comedy ', which had no chorus at all. Living persons 
were still attacked, but under fictitious names. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Grecian Historians. 



Slow Rise of History among the Greeks. — The 
Greeks had arrived at a high pitch of civilization before they 
possessed a history. Dazzled and fascinated by the glories 
of the heroic ages, they took but little interest in the events 
which were daily passing around them. At last, however, 
a more critical and inquiring spirit began to spring up, 
especially among the Ionians of Asia Minor. Here it was 
that natural philosophy took its rise ; and here also historical 
compositions originated. To Hecatseus of Miletus, who 
lived to the close of the Persian wars, are ascribed two works, 
respectively called Periodus and Genealogies. The former 



B. G. 484-357. HISTORIANS. 267 

constituted the first regular system of Grecian geography ; 
the latter related to the descent and exploits of the mythologi- 
cal heroes. 

The first prose writer whose subjects were selected from 
the historical times and treated with proper discrimination, 
was Charon, of Lampsacus, who flourished in the first half of 
the 5th century B. c. He might therefore be regarded as 
the father of history. But the Greeks, by common consent, 
reserved that title for Herodotus. 

Herodotus (b. c. 484-408) was born in the Dorian 
colony of Halicarnassus, in Caria. When about 30, desiring 
to escape the tyranny of Lygdamis, a grandson of Artemisia, 
he withdrew to Samos. How long he remained there, can- 
not be determined. He seems to have been recalled to his 
native city by some political crisis ; for, on his return, he 
took a prominent part in the expulsion of Lygdamis. Fresh 
political dissensions, however, once again induced him to 
withdraw, and he now undertook the travels of which he 
speaks in his work. He explored not only Asia Minor and 
Greece, but Thrace and the coasts of the Black Sea ; he pene- 
trated in Egypt as far south as Elephantine ; and he visited 
the cities of Babylon, Ecbat&na, and Susa. The latter part of 
his life was spent at Thurii, in Italy ; and here he composed 
the greater part of his history. When it was completed, he 
recited it, at the great Olympic festival, to the assembled 
Greeks. The effect was prodigious ; the author's celebrity 
eclipsed that of the victors in the games. 

Herodotus interwove into his history all the knowledge ac- 
quired in his travels and by his own personal researches. 
The real subject of his work is the conflict between the Greek 
race and the Asiatics, from mythical times down to the 
attempts of the Persians upon Greece. After touching 
lightly on the old legends, Herodotus, in the first book, 
reviewed the subjection of the Asiatic Greeks by Crcesus ; 
next, the quarrel between Crcesus and Cyrus, which brings in 
a retrospective view of the rise of the Medo-Persian empire; 
and, lastly, the reduction of Asia Minor and Babylonia by 
the Persian conqueror. The second book follows Cambyses 
to Egypt, and is wholly taken up with the description of that 
country. The third relates the annexation of Egypt to the 
Persian empire, the abortive attempts of Cambyses against 
the Ethiopians and Ammonians, and the reign of the Pseudo- 
Smerdis. The fourth is chiefly occupied with the Scythian 



268 GREECE. Chapt. XVI. 

expedition of Darius ; whilst at the same time, a Persian 
armament, fitted out in Egypt for the conquest of Libya, 
serves to introduce an account of the discovery and coloniza- 
tion of the latter country by the Greeks. In the fifth, the 
termination of the Thracian expedition under Megabazus is 
related, and a description given of the Thracian people. 
This book also contains an account of the origin of the 
quarrel between Persia and the Greek colonies in Asia Minor. 
The history of the wars between the Greeks and the Persians, 
then runs on with little interruption in the remainder of the 
work. 

The ease and simplicity of the style of Herodotus lend it 
an indescribable charm. He had formed a high notion of 
the value of history, and was a sincere lover of truth. 
Where he speaks from his own observation, his accounts 
may be implicitly relied on; but, in accepting the state- 
ments of others, he not unfrequently displays an almost 
childish credulity. These, _ however, he always gives for 
what they are worth, leaving the reader to form his own 
judgment, and often cautioning him as to their source and 
value. 

Thucydides (b. c. 471-401) was an Athenian, whose 
family was connected with that of Miltiades and Cimon. 
He was a man of wealth, and we know from his own account 
that he possessed gold mines in Thrace, and enjoyed great 
influence in that country. We also learn from himself that 
he was one of the sufferers from the plague at Athens, and 
among the few who recovered. Condemned for his share 
of responsibility in the loss of Amphipolis (b. c. 414), he 
remained in banishment for twenty years. To the leisure 
thus forced upon him we probably owe his invaluable history 
of the Peloponnesian war. 

The history of Thucydides is prefaced with a rapid sketch 
of Grecian affairs from the remotest time to the breaking 
out of the war, accompanied with an explanation of the 
events and causes which led to it, and a digression on the 
rise and progress of Athenian power. The remainder of the 
history is filled with the details of the war itself down to the 
middle of the 21st year, when the work was interrupted by 
the death of the author. The materials of Thucydides were 
collected with the most scrupulous care. An exile, he fully 
availed himself of his opportunities of personally consulting 
neutrals and enemies, and thus was able to impart to his im- 



B. C. 484-357. HtSTORIANS. 269 

mortal work that comprehensive spirit for which it has been 
so much admired. The style is brief, sententious, and forci- 
ble ; but occasionally harsh and obscure. 

Xenophon (b. c. 444.-357), an Athenian like Thucydides, 
was a pupil of Socrates, and also received instructions from 
Prodicus of Ceos, and Isocrates. At the age of 40 or there- 
abouts, he joined the expedition of the younger Cyrus, 
which he has recorded in his Anabasis. He subsequently 
served under the Spartan Agesilaus against the Persians, in 
Asia Minor,* and fought with the Lacedaemonians against 
his own countrymen at the battle of Coronea (b. c. 394). 
He then settled at Scillus ,in Elis, near Olympia, agreeably 
spending his time in hunting and other rural diversions, as 
well as in literary pursuits. Here it was that he composed 
the book on which his fame as an historian chiefly rests — the 
Anabasis, a work written in a simple and agreeable style, 
and conveying much curious information. PI is Cyropcedia, 
or education of the Great Cyrus, is a sort of political ro- 
mance, wherein he exhibits what he deemed a picture of a 
perfect state. Though the scene is laid in Persia, the ma- 
terials of the work are drawn from the author's philosophical 
notions and the usages of Sparta, engrafted on the current 
stories respecting Cyrus. Xenophon displays in this book 
his dislike of democratic institutions like those of Athens, 
and his preference for an aristocracy, or even a monarchy. 
Among his minor compositions may be mentioned the 
Memorabilia, a series of dialogues intended as a defence of 
his old master Socrates against the charges on which he was 
condemned. Though simple and elegant, Xenophon's style 
is rather monotonous and deficient in vigor. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Grecian Education. — Rhetors and Sophists. — Socrates. 

Grecian Education. — A certain amount of elementary 
education seems to have prevailed, at this time, among the 

* Banishment from Athens was decided against him about this 
time or a little later, in consequence of his connection with Lace- 
daemon. Many years after, the sentence was repealed ; but there 
is no evidence that he ever returned to Athens. 



270 • GREECE. Chapt. XVII. 

free citizens of all the Grecian States. Instruction was 
usually imparted in schools. The pedagogue, or private 
tutor, was not a teacher. His office was merely to watch 
over his pupils, in their idle hours and on their way to 
school. So soon as a child could read with fluency, he was 
made to learn by heart passages selected from the best poets, 
in which moral precepts and examples of virtue were in- 
culcated and exhibited. The works of ^Esop and Theognis 
were much used for this purpose. The youth was next 
taught those accomplishments which the Greeks compre- 
hended under the name of music, that is the art of playing 
on the lyre, of singing and dancing, and of reciting poetical 
compositions with grace and propriety of accent and pro- 
nunciation. Whilst he was thus fitted to bear a worthy 
part in a chorus, his physical powers were developed and 
strengthened, by a course of gymnastic exercises. 

At the age of 18 or 20, the sons of the more wealthy citi- 
zens attended the classes of the rhetors and sophists. These, 
at Athens, gave their lectures principally in the Lyceum and 
Academy ; and, elsewhere, in similar institutions and places 
of public resort. Here the young man studied rhetoric and 
philosophy — under which heads were included mathematics, 
astronomy, dialectics, oratory, criticism, and morals. The 

Rhetors and Sophists thus played the most important 
part in the formation of the future citizen. They gave the 
last bias to the mind, and sent him forth into the world with 
habits and thoughts which, in after-life, he would perhaps 
have neither the leisure nor the inclination to alter or even 
to examine. But most of the young men who attended the 
lectures of the rhetors, wished merely to obtain such knowl- 
edge of rhetoric and dialectics as would enable them to con- 
fute an adversary, to defend themselves, or to persuade a 
public assembly. They cared but little for the speculative 
principles of their masters, except in so far as they served to 
sharpen dialectic skill, and qualified one to take a part in 
active life. Among the most eminent rhetors of the age of 
Socrates, were Protagoras of Abdera, Gorgias of Leontini, 
Polus of Agrigentum, Hippias of Elis, Prodicus of Ceos, 
and others. The name of sophist borne by these men, far 
from possessing an invidious meaning, then meant only a wise 
or a clever man. In this sense it was applied to the seven 
sages and to the poets. This honorable meaning the word 
sophist retained down to the time of Socrates. Plato and 



J3. C. 468-399. SOCRAfES. %hi 

Xenophon were the first to use it as a term of reproach, pre- 
ferring, when they spoke of a truly wise man, to call him a 
philosopher. We may therefore suppose that the name of 
sophist began to fall into contempt through the teaching of 
Socrates ; it is plain that he shrank from the appellation. 

Socrates (b. c. 468-399)— the Citizen - Philosopher 
— and Teacher. — This eminent man, the most original of 
Grecian philosophers, was the son of a sculptor, and practised 
in early life the profession of his father. As a hoplite, he 
served with credit at Potidsea, Delium, and Amphipolis, giv- 
ing singular proofs of intrepidity, and evincing such power 
of bearing fatigue and hardship, such indifference to heat or 
cold, as excited the astonishment of all. A good citizen, he 
strictly observed the laws, and was a model of uprightness. 
But it is as a philosopher and teacher, that he chiefly deserves 
our admiration. 

Regarding man as the proper object of one's study, he 
set himself to the consideration of such questions as, What 
is justice? What are piety, courage, political government? 
What is the character befitting a citizen ? What is authority ? 
— how should it be discharged ? Nor was he content with 
mastering these and similar questions. From knowledge, 
he proceeded to practice ; he studied to make his life con- 
formable to his principles. Among the virtues which he 
valued most and practised best, were contempt of wordly 
goods and patience. He limited, as much as possible, the 
number of his wants, controlling such as were natural, and 
discarding the purely artificial. Though of an irascible 
temper, self- discipline made him most patient. As he one 
day felt himself very much excited, he said to a slave, " I 
would beat you, were I not angry." At another time, being 
insolently struck on the face, he smiled and said, "It is 
rather unpleasant not to know when one should put on a 
helmet." The bad temper of his wife, Xantippe, whose 
name has become proverbial for a conjugal shrew, he bore 
with admirable patience. On one .occasion, after loading 
him with a torrent of abuse, she poured the contents of a 
filthy vase on his head. Socrates, as usual, contented him- 
self with laughing at her fury : " After such claps of thunder," 
said he " it was natural to expect a shower." 

Socrates did not confine his exertions to self- improvement. 
He devoted the latter half of his life to the task of teaching 
all who might be willing to hear his instructions. In the 



2 7 2 . GREECE. Chapt.XViL 

public walks, in the gymnasia, in the schools of youths, in 
the market, in all places and at all hours, he would be found 
discoursing on human wisdom, and explaining the duties and 
purposes of life. Besides casual hearers, not a few won by 
the persuasiveness of his manner, usually attended him in 
public as companions and listeners. Many even came from 
foreign parts, attracted by his reputation for wisdom. Never 
had any man more illustrious disciples. Among others, it 
is enough to mention here Plato, Euclides, and Aristippus — 
the respective founders of the Academic, Megaric, and 
Cyrenaic schools of philosophy. 

Trials and Death of Socrates (b. c. 399). — Whilst 
thus acquiring a few devoted friends and admirers, Socrates 
^provoked the antipathy of the greater number. Under the 
persuasion that he was divinely commissioned to expose 
popular fallacies and prejudices, he would publicly question, 
not only the young and humbler sort of persons, but the lead- 
ing men — politicians, sophists, poets, and others, who thought 
themselves, and were thought to be wise, and yet on being 
cross-examined could not reply to his queries without being 
driven to contradictory answers. The usual and natural 
result of this scrutinizing method with the persons whose 
ignorance had been exposed, was strong, inveterate hatred. 
For thirty years, Socrates persevered in his self-imposed 
task of teaching wisdom. Meanwhile, the force of antipathy 
was accumulating. At last, availing themselves of the fact 
that the young men who were under his influence, often 
brought home novel ideas, some of them opposed to the 
existing constitution, his enemies accused him of being a 
corrupter of youth. He replied that he acted in pursuance 
of a divine inspiration, following the mandates of a genius 
whose admonitions he frequently heard — an answer which 
furnished his opponents with a fresh ground of accusation. 
They impeached him also as guilty of introducing new deities, 
and of impiety in not worshipping the gods of the city, and 
demanded his death. ' 

Socrates made no preparation for his defence, and seems 
indeed not to have desired an acquittal. But, although he 
addressed the judges in a bold and uncompromising tone, 
he was condemned only by a small majority of five or six, in 
a court composed of between five or six hundred dicasts. 
When the verdict had been pronounced, he was entitled, 
according to the practice of the Athenian courts, to make 



I 

B. C. 468-399. SOCRATES. 273 

some counter-proposition in place of the penalty of death 
which the accusers had demanded. Had he done so with 
any show of submission, it is probable that the sentence 
would have been mitigated. But his tone was even higher 
than before: "Having spent" he* said, "my whole life in 
earnest endeavors to serve my country and benefit my 
fellow-citizens by teaching them the way of virtue, I know 
of no other punishment that I deserve, than to be maintained 
in the Prytaneum at the expense of the government, as a 
public benefactor." This seems to have enraged the dicasts, 
and he was condemned to drink hemlock, the usual punish- 
ment of state criminals. 

It happened that the vessel which proceeded to Delos on 
the annual deputation to the festival, had sailed the day 
before the condemnation. During its absence, it was unlaw- 
ful to put any one to death. Socrates was thus kept in 
prison thirty days, till the return of the vessel. He spent 
the interval in conversing with his friends on philosophical 
subjects, especially the immortality of the soul; refused the 
means of escape which were offered to him; and, having 
taken the fatal draught with the utmost composure, expired. 

The Socratic Method of Teaching. — The method 
of Socrates was both negative and positive. The negative 
or cross-questioning method, intended to disprove and upset 
what is advanced by a disputant, he used to unmask either 
falsehood or unsupported assertion, yet without attempting 
to establish anything in its place. His positive method, 
meant to gain or convey clear and distinct ideas on moral 
subjects, consisted chiefly in the use of definition and infer- 
ence, which he was the first to employ as the means of elicit- 
ing truth. With him, speech ceased to be a vehicle for 
empty display, as it was too often with the sophists. Unlike 
these, also, he taught high and low, rich and poor, without 
fee or reward. Whatever learning was founded merely on 
guesses and conjectures, no matter how prized, he opposed, 
and thought himself commissioned to unmask. Socrates 
never wrote anything himself. His teaching has been known 
to us by his disciples, especially by the most illustrious of 
these — Plato. 



$74 GREECE. Chapt. XVllI. 

CHAPTER XVIII. 

Cyreian Expedition and Retreat of the Ten Thousand. — 

B. C. 40I-400. 

Preparations of Cyrus. — Cyrus, surnamed the younger, 
a son of Darius Nothus, had been invested by his brother, 
Artaxerxes II, with the government of Asia Minor. But, 
believing himself entitled to the crown of Persia, he resolved 
to wrest it from his brother ; and, under the pretence of a 
private quarrel with the satrap Tissaphernes, he began 
secretly to make extensive preparations for war. From his 
intercourse with the Greeks, Cyrus knew well their supe- 
riority to the Asiatics, and he was desirous of enlisting 
numbers of them in his service. This was the more easy, 
as the peace which followed the fall of Athens, left without 
employment many Greeks bred up in the practice of war 
during the long Peloponnesian struggle, and many more 
who had been driven into exile by the establishment of 
Spartan oligarchies in the various conquered cities. So, no 
fewer than 14,000 Greeks were found willing to fight under 
the standard of Cyrus. Among them was the Athenian Xen- 
ophon, who accompanied the expedition as a volunteer, at 
the invitation of his friend Proxenus, a Boeotian, and one of 
the generals of Cyrus. The Greek in whom the Persian 
prince placed most confidence, was Clearchus, a Lacedae- 
monian. Clearchus alone knew the real object of Cyrus ; 
the rest did not begin to suspect it, till after they reached 
Tarsus, a city on the coast of Cilicia. 

Battle of Cunaxa (b . c. 401). — Cyrus, at the head of 
his Greek mercenaries and 100,000 Asiatics, reached the 
Euphrates and crossed the river without experiencing any 
resistance. But, at Cunaxa, in the fertile plains of Baby- 
lonia, he was confronted by his brother with an army of 
900,000. The Persian left, which happened to be opposed 
to the Greeks, did not await the onset, but turned and fled 
so soon as they saw them spring forward for the charge. 
Whilst the Greeks imprudently rushed to the pursuit of the 
fugitives, the rest of the Persian army stood its ground, and 
Artaxerxes ordered his right to wheel about, and encompass 
the Asiatics who were under the immediate command of Cyrus. 



B. C. 401-400. CYREIAN EXPEDITION. 275 

No sooner did the latter find himself outflanked, than with 
his body-guard he impetuously charged the enemy's centre, 
and, penetrating to where Artaxerxes was, madly rushed at 
him, and wounded him in the breast ; but he was himself 
overborne by superior numbers, and slain on the spot. 

Retreat of the Ten Thousand (b. c. 401-400). — Cyrus 
dead, the Greeks thought of nothing but regaining their 
homes. They concluded a convention with the enemy, 
whereby the Persians engaged to escort them safe to the 
Ionian coast. Instead of this, the satrap Tissaphernes led 
them further away beyond the Tigris, decoyed their five 
generals into a snare, and then called upon the men to lay 
down their arms. Ruin appeared inevitable, and consterna- 
tion seized every breast. The Greeks were in the midst of 
a hostile country, 1500 miles from home, surrounded by 
enemies, hemmed in by impassable rivers and mountains, 
without generals, without guides, without provisions. Hap- 
pily for the army, one in whom there was a full measure of 
soldierly strength and courage, combined with prudence, 
skill, and eloquence, the Athenian Xenophon, addressed 
himself to the task of raising the drooping spirits, and per- 
suaded his companions to proceed on their march, after 
appointing new leaders. Himself and four others were 
chosen. The troops committed themselves to their guidance, 
and set out fully determined to force their way through the 
enemy. For want of boats, they could not cross the Tigris 
and Euphrates, till, by marching towards the north for many 
days, they reached the mountains of Armenia, where these 
rivers take their rise. During this time, they were often 
compelled to fight, either against the Persians who pursued 
them, or against the inhabitants of the countries through 
which they passed. A thousand other obstacles impeded 
their progress. But by their patience, constancy, and valor, 
they overcame all difficulties; and, in about four months, 
reached the Grecian colonies near the Euxine sea. They 
thence proceeded towards the Hellespont, and as far as the 
city of Pergamus, where they enlisted themselves among 
the troops of Thymbron, the Lacedaemonian, who was pre- 
paring to march against the satraps Tissaphernes and 
Pharnabazus. 

Results of the Cyreian Expedition. — Not only did 
this celebrated retreat of the Ten Thousand bring out more 
fully than ever the superiority of Grecian over Asiatic soldiers ; 



276 GREECE. Chapt. XIX. 

but it laid bare both the weakness of Persia, and the facility 
with which a Greek force might penetrate to the very midst 
of the empire, and remain or return, as it might think 
proper. Hitherto Babylon and Susa had been, even to the 
mind of a Greek statesman, entirely too remote to be reached 
by force of arms. Henceforward they began to b»e looked 
upon as prizes quite within the legitimate scope of Greek 
ambition. 

There was another discovery made during the retreat, 
which partly indicated the weakness of the Persian power, 
and partly accounted for it. The Greeks had believed that 
the whole vast space between the Black Sea, Caucasus, Cas- 
pian, and Jaxartes on the one hand, and the Arabian Desert, 
Persian Gulf, and Indian Ocean on the other, formed but a 
single centralized monarchy. They now found that even on 
the confines of Media and Assyria, near the heart of the 
empire, there existed independent tribes which set the arms 
of Persia at defiance; while, farther on, whole provinces 
once held in subjection had regained their independence. 



CHAPTER XIX. 

Spartan Supremacy. — b. c. 405-371 

The Spartan Empire. — The battle of yEgospotami, and 
the consequent capture of Athens, left Sparta without a 
rival in Greece. In every city which had belonged to the 
Athenian empire, she had established harmosis, or gov- 
ernors, who maintained her ascendency. The government 
of the harmosts was corrupt and oppressive ; no justice 
could be obtained against them by an appeal to- the Spartan 
authority at home, and the Grecian cities soon had cause to 
regret the milder and more equitable sway of Athens. 

Spartan Degeneracy. — The commencement of the 
Spartan degeneracy may be dated from her entrance upon 
imperial power. Before the victories of Lysander, iron had 
formed the only .Spartan money. But the vast sums of gold 
and silver brought into the treasury by that commander ; 
the 1,000 talents paid by the subject-states for the mainte- 
nance of the fleet ; the peculiar facility which so many Spartans 



B. C. 405-37I. SPARTAN SUPREMACY. 277 

now enjoyed to enrich themselves abroad — fanned in their 
breast that love of money which, even under the old system, 
they had so often contrived to gratify. With the influx of 
money, those homely virtues which previously formed 
Sparta's chief distinction, were greatly impaired. The lead- 
ing men, who enriched themselves by foreign commands or 
at the expense of the treasury, raised the scale of living at 
the public tables. Many Spartans thus became unable to 
bear their share at the syssitia % and sank into a degraded 
and discontented class. 

Agesilaus in Asia (b. c. 396-394). — Artaxerxes 11, 
wishing to be revenged on the Greeks for the aid they had 
given to Cyrus, ordered (b. c. 399) his satrap Tissaphernes 
to attack the Ionian cities, which were now under the pro- 
tection of the Spartans. A considerable force was dispatched 
to their assistance. But nothing of importance occurred until 
king Agesilaus arrived at Ephesus, and took the command, 
B. c. 396. The mind of Agesilaus was as great as his pres- 
ence was mean. His appearance, on the scene of war, was 
at once fe^t. Having restored discipline among the troops, 
and inspired all with his own confidence, he repeatedly 
defeated the Persians^ took from them many cities, and car- 
ried off immense spoils. Elated by these achievements, he 
was preparing a grand expedition into the interior of Asia 
Minor, when an unexpected summons recalled him to Sparta. 

Corinthian War : Battle of Cnidus (b. c. 394). — On 
leaving Asia, Agesilaus remarked that he was driven from it 
by ten thousand archa r s of the king, meaning the Persian 
coins, stamped with an archer, which Artaxerxes had dis- 
tributed among influential persons in the Grecian states, to 
rouse them against Lacedaemon. At first, Thebes alone 
declared war. Some success which she obtained, encouraged 
the other enemies of Sparta. Athens, Corinth, and Argos, 
now formed an alliance with Thebes; and the league was 
soon joined by the Eubceans, the Acarnanians, and others., 
A war of a checkered character followed. The Spartans, 
through the genius of Agesilaus, maintained for some years 
longer their superiority by land. But Conon, the Athenian, 
having obtained ships and money from Persia, entirely 
destroyed their fleet near Cnidus, on the coast of Caria 
(b. c. 394). This defeat proved a terrible blow to Sparta. 
It deprived her of the command of the sea, and detached 
from her most of her Asiatic allies, some of whom declared 
24 



278 GREECE. Chapt. XIX. 

for the Athenians, whilst others proclaimed their indepen- 
dence. 

Peace of Antalcidas (b. c. 387). — After his victory at 
Cnldus, Conon ravaged without opposition the coast of 
Laconia. Then, proceeding to Athens with his victorious 
fleet and a supply of Persian gold, he rebuilt the walls and 
fortifications of the city. Alarmed at this return of prosperity 
in a rival state, Sparta felt the necessity of procuring peace, 
even at the price of her honor and the liberties of Greece. 
By the disgraceful treaty which her envoy, Antalcidas, con- 
cluded with Persia, the Greek cities in Asia together with the 
islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae were surrendered to the 
king ; Corinth was to be separated from Argos, and Thebes 
deprived of her hegemony over the Boeotian cities. Sparta 
alone not only lost nothing, but was even entitled to receive 
from the Persian king, thus made the arbiter of Greece, all 
the money and troops that might be needed to enforce the 
execution of the treaty. Crushed by the combined strength 
of Sparta and Persia, the Grecian states yielded. But 
Sparta's selfishness and arrogance were hastening the day of 
retribution. 

Seizure of the Cadmea (b. c. 383). — Another disgrace- 
ful step of the Lacedaemonians was the fraudulent occupa- 
tion of the citadel of Thebes, the Cadmea. The loud com- 
plaints occasioned by this act of treachery, were of no avail, 
and numbers of Thebans were forced into exile. For three 
years, Thebes remained in the power of the Spartan faction, 
supported by a garrison of 1500 Lacedaemonians. 

The Lacedemonians expelled from Thebes (b. c. 
379). — The power of Sparta on land had now attained its 
greatest height. But her unpopularity in Greece daily in- 
creased; and her successes, unscrupulously earned, were 
shortly to be followed by misfortunes. The'first blow came 
from Thebes. Discontent arose among the resident citizens ; 
and a party of exiles, who had taken refuge at Athens, 
watched their opportunity. Among these was Pelopidas, a 
young man of birth and fortune, distinguished for activity 
and patriotism. Between him and his friends at Thebes, it 
was arranged that a supper should be given to the Spartan 
polemarchs, Archias and Philippus, during which Pelopidas, 
introduced in female attire with a few other youths, would 
dispatch those magistrates. While the polemarchs were at 
table, an envoy arrived from Athens with a letter for Archias 



B. C. 371-362. THEBAN SUPREMACY. 279 

accurately detailing the whole plot, and a warning that the 
message related to matters of importance. But the pole- 
march, completely engrossed by the pleasures of the table, 
thrust the letter under the pillow of his couch, exclaiming, 
" Serious matters to-morrow." In a few moments, the dis- 
guised youths were ushered into the room. Falling upon 
the polemarchs, they slew them, and called upon such citi- 
zens as valued their liberty to muster in the market-place. 
These, with the aid of the other exiles and of some Athe- 
nian volunteers who accompanied them, succeeded in driving 
the Lacedaemonian garrison from the citadel. Thebes was 
thus free. The better to secure her independence, she 
formed an alliance with £he Athenians ; and the latter, 
through their illustrious citizens, Chabrias and Timotheus, 
organized a confederacy which ultimately numbered 70 
cities. The Thebans, on their side, instituted the famous 
Sacred Band, consisting of 300 choice hoplites, specially en- 
trusted with the defence of the Cadmea. 



CHAPTER XX. 

Theban Supremacy. — b. c. 371-362. 

Epaminondas (b. c. 441-362). — Thebes possessed at this 
time, besides Pelopidas, another citizen of still greater merit, 
Epaminondas, the most conspicuous perhaps of all Grecian 
heroes. Sprung from an ancient family, he had all the best 
qualities of his nation, without that heaviness, either of body 
or of mind, which characterized the Thebans. He was both a 
philosopher and an orator. Though poor, he was above the 
temptation of avarice or corruption. Though naturally firm 
and courageous, he was averse to violence or bloodshed. A 
true patriot, he was a stranger to personal ambition, and 
scorned the little arts by which popularity is too often 
courted. A great statesman and general, he wrested from 
Sparta her supremacy, and advanced his own state to the 
headship of Greece. 

Successes of the Thebans (b. c. 378-371). — Sparta 
was not disposed to relinquish her hold on Thebes without 
trying the chances of war. Repeatedly was Bceotia invaded, 



2 8o GREECE. Chapt. XX. 

but with each invasion the Thebans acquired more skill and 
confidence. On one occasion, Pelopidas, with only the 
Sacred Band and a small body of cavalry, put to the rout a 
Lacedaemonian force nearly twice as numerous. At last, the 
Spartans were driven from all their posts in Boeotia, except 
Orchomenus ; and the Boeotian confederacy was reorganized. 
But, at this juncture, the old jealousy of Athens towards 
Thebes also revived ; and, though the Athenians had gained 
considerable advantages at sea, they signified their willing- 
ness to come to terms with Lacedsemon. Accordingly, in 
the spring of 371 b. c, a congress assembled at Sparta to 
discuss the conditions of peace. 

Congress at Sparta (b. e. 371). — The terms agreed 
upon were, that the armaments on both sides should be dis- 
banded, the Spartan harmosts and garrisons dismissed, and 
the independence of the various Grecian cities recognized. 
Sparta ratified the treaty for herself and her allies. Athens 
took the oath only for herself, and was followed separately 
by her allies. But when the turn of the Thebans came, 
Epaminondas, their representative, refused to sign except 
in the name of the Boeotian confederation, maintaining that 
the right of Thebes to the headship of Boeotia was as good 
as that of Sparta to the sovereignty of Laconia, both being 
derived simply from the power of the sword. Never before 
had such language been heard at Sparta. Agesilaus was in- 
censed beyond measure ; and, starting from his seat, ab- 
ruptly told Epaminondas : " Speak out — will you, or will you 
not leave each Boeotian city independent ? " " And will 
you" retorted the Theban, "leave each of the Laconian 
towns independent ? " Agesilaus made no answer, but 
directed the name of the Thebans to be struck out of the 
treaty. 

Battle of Leuctra (b. c. 371). — But one feeling now 
prevailed at Sparta — a desire to crush Thebes ; and Boeotia 
was invaded at once by Cleombrotus. The Thebans, en- 
couraged by Epaminondas and Pelopidas, were no less res- 
olute. Their discipline and efficiency, already so much 
improved, were made irresistible by a novel arrangement 
suggested to Epaminondas by his own genius, which con- 
sisted in concentrating upon a given point of the enemy 
heavy masses of troops. Thus prepared, he did not hesitate 
to encounter, at Leuctra, the much superior force of Lace- 
daemonians led by Cleombrotus in person. Forming his 



% C. 371-362. tHEBAN SUPREMACY. 28 1 

left wing into a dense column 50 ranks deep, he directed it 
against the Lacedaemonian right, wherein were drawn up 
the best troops in their army under the immediate command 
of the king. The shock was terrible. Cleombrotus himselt 
was 1 mortally wounded in the onset. Numbers of his officers, 
as well as of the men, were slain ; and the whole wing was 
driven back into the camp. On no other part of the line 
was there any serious fighting, because partly of the dispo- 
sition made by Epaminondas, and partly of the lukewarm- 
ness of the Spartan allies, many of whom hardly concealed 
their satisfaction at the result. Out of 700 Spartans in the 
army, 400 had fallen. The survivors, according to Spartan 
custom, were to have been looked upon as degraded men, 
and to have been subjected to the penalties of civil in%my. 
On this occasion, however, owing to the great number of 
the survivors, the usual penalties were suspended. But the 
relatives of the dead, by order of the government, rejoiced ; 
whilst the friends of the others seemed overwhelmed with 
grief and shame. 

Invasion of Peloponnesus (b. c. 361-362). — The effect 
of the battle was electrical. It was felt throughout Greece 
that a new military power had arisen, and the prestige of the 
old Spartan discipline and tactics vanished. All Central 
Greece at once joined Thebes. Even in Peloponnesus, an 
Arcadian confederation formed itself in opposition to Sparta. 
To support this new power, Epaminondas advanced into La- 
conia, which he plundered to the very, suburbs of the capi- 
tal. Sparta, which was wholly unfortified, was now filled 
with confusion and alarm. The women, who had never yet 
seen the face of an enemy, gave vent to their fears in wail- 
ing and lamentation. But the bold front presented by the 
aged king Agesilaus, warned Epaminondas not to risk an 
attack on the city. He withdrew from its neighborhood 
into Arcadia, whose new confederation he busied himself in 
consolidating. For this purpose, a town destined to be its 
capital — Megalopolis, was built on the banks of the Helis- 
son, and peopled with the inhabitants of 40 distinct Arca- 
dian districts. Here a synod of deputies from the towns 
composing the federation, called the Ten Thousand, was to 
meet periodically for the dispatch of business. Nor was 
Epaminondas satisfied with this. The better to cripple the 
efforts of Sparta, he planned the reestablishment of the 
Messenian state, which he effected by inviting back to the 



2 S2 GREECE. Chapt. XXL 

possessions of their ancestors the descendants of the first 
exiles, and founding for them the town of Messen6. Its 
citadel was placed on Mount Ithome, which had, three cen- 
turies before, been so bravely defended by the Messenians 
against the Spartans. The strength of its fortifications was 
long afterwards a subject of admiration. 

Battle of Mantinea (b. c. 362). — So low had Sparta 
sunk, that she was fain to beg the assistance of the Athe- 
nians. These, jealous of the increase of Theban power, 
listened to the proposal, and with Achaia, Elis, and part of 
Arcadia formed an alliance with Lacedaemon. To reestab- 
lish the influence thus lost in Peloponnesus, and to release 
the friends of Thebes in the peninsula from a situation which 
had become one of danger, Epaminondas led an army to the 
support of the Theban party in Arcadia, and prepared to 
attack the Mantineans. Agesilaus, on his part, brought a 
powerful force to their assistance. In the battle which en- 
sued, Epaminondas again formed his troops into a column 
of extraordinary depth, which bore down all before it. But 
he received a mortal wound ; and, being informed that 
Iolai'das and Dai'phantus, whom he intended to succeed him 
in the command, were both slain, " Then," he observed, 
" you must make peace." — His friend Pelopidas had like- 
wise fallen in battle, a year before, while fighting in Thessalia. 



CHAPTER XXI. 
Greece After the Theban War. 

Collapse of the Theban Power. — The glory of 
Thebes, for which she was indebted to Pelopidas and Epam- 
inondas, departed from her with these illustrious men. The 
last advice of Epaminondas was adopted, and peace was 
concluded probably before the Theban army quitted Pelop- 
onnesus. Its basis was a recognition of the status quo— to 
leave everything as it was, to acknowledge the Arcadian 
confederation and the independence of Messene. Hence- 
forth, the Thebans relapsed into their former obscurity. 

Sparta indeed refused to sign the peace ; but^she was 
not supported by her allies. Her late defeats had so 



E - c - 359~33 6 - PHILIP II OF MACEDON. 283 

weakened her that she ceased to be formidable. Shorn of 
their national energy and former strength, the Lacedaemo- 
nians never afterwards accomplished anything worthy of 
their ancient renown. 

Death of Agesilaus. — Agesilaus, however, had not 
yet abandoned all hope of restoring Spartan ascendency.. 
Turning his views to the east, as the quarter whence the 
means for the resuscitation of his country's power might be 
more easily obtained, the indomitable old man proceeded 
with a force of 1000 hoplites to assist Tachos, king of Egypt, 
in his revolt against Persia. The age and mean appearance 
of the veteran warrior made him, however, a butt for Egyp- 
tian ridicule, and he was not entrusted with the supreme com- 
mand. In spite of this affront, he accompanied the Egyptian 
army in an expedition against Phoenicia; and when Nec- 
tanebo rose against Tachos, Agesilaus aided him in secu- 
ring the throne of Egypt. For this service the Spartan king 
received a present of 230 talents. But he did not live to 
carry this money home, having died on his road to Cyrene, 
where he had intended to embark. His body was em- 
balmed in wax, and splendidly buried at Sparta. 

Athens, during the Theban war, evinced considerable 
sagacity. By assisting alternately Thebes and Sparta as 
each proved the weaker, she derived from the exhaustion 
of both no small profit. She succeeded in regaining some 
portion of her former strength ; reconstituted in part the old 
Athenian confederacy ; and, by the occupation of Samos and 
Chersonesus, began to restore her empire. But, as will be 
seen in the next chapter, this return of good fortune did not 
last long. Though now the leading power in Greece, she 
was unable to arrest the progress of Philip of Macedon. 



CHAPTER XXII. 

Philip ii of Macedon. — b. c. 359-336. 

Macedonia and its Inhabitants. — Macedonia, by its 
position north, of Thessaly, was not considered a part of 
Greece. By the Greeks themselves, the inhabitants were 
looked upon as barbarians, that is, as not of Hellenic origin. 



£84 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXlt. 

In fact, they were probably an Illyrian people. But though 
the Macedonians were not Greeks, their sovereigns claimed 
to be of Argive, and therefore of Hellenic descent ; and, as 
such, were allowed to contend at the Olympic games. 

Origin of the Monarchy. — Perdiccas is commonly 
regarded as the founder of the monarchy. Under his fifth 
successor, Amyntas, Macedonia became subject to Persia, 
and remained so till after the battle of Platsea. The reigns 
of the succeeding sovereigns down to Philip 11, with the ex- 
ception of that of Archelaus, present little that is remarkable. 
But Archelaus did much for Macedonia by improving the 
condition of the army, erecting fortresses to check his bar- 
barous neighbors, constructing roads, and introducing among 
his subjects a taste for literature and art. Zeuxis was em- 
ployed to adorn his palace with paintings ; and many literary 
men, among whom Euripides, were entertained at his court. 
The celebrated Philip 11 was his son. 

Character of Philip ii. — In his youth, Philip had 
lived at Thebes as a hostage. His residence in that city 
gave him some tincture of Grecian philosophy and literature. 
But the most important lesson which he learned there, was 
the art of war with all the improved tactics introduced by 
Epaminondas. Philip succeeded to the throne at the age of 
twenty-three (b. c. 359), and displayed at once extraordinary 
energy and abilities. After defeating the lllyrians, he 
established a standing army, in which discipline was main- 
tained by the severest punishments. He introduced the 
far-famed Macedonian phalanx,* 16 files deep, and armed 
with spears 24 feet long. He improved all the branches 
in his army — infantry, cavalry, commissariat service, imple- 
ments of siege — till they were decidedly superior to any 
other in Greece. Nor were these the only elements of suc- 
cess he relied on. Philip was a perfect master of finesse and 
dissimulation. None knew better what use to make of fair 
words, deceitful promises, intrigues, and bribes. He was in 
the habit of saying, that he considered no fortress "impregna- 
ble which could be reached by a mule loaded with gold. 

Capture of Amphipolis (b. c. 358) and Potid^ea (b. 
c - 356)- — Philip's first views were directed towards the 
acquisition of Amphipolis, a commercial post near the mouth 
of the Strymon, and the gate of Thrace. Aware that the 

*This famous body of heavy-armed infantry amounted to 16,000 
men. 



h. C 359-336. PHILIP II OF MACEDON. ^85 

Athenians and Olynthians had a common interest in prevent- 
ing him from taking it, and that their union could frustrate 
his design, he bought off their opposition by secretly prom- 
ising Amphipolis to the Athenians, if they would give him 
Pydna, and by ceding Anthemus to the Olynthians. Thus 
prepared, he laid siege to Amphipolis, which fell into his 
hands. Thence he marched against Pydna, and captured it 
also ; but, on the plea that it was not the Athenians who had 
put him in possession of it, he refused to give it to them. 
To guard against the resentment of Athens, and prevent her 
from obtaining aid from the Olynthians, Philip assisted the lat- 
ter in recovering Potidaea, which had formerly belonged to the 
confederacy, but was now in the hands of the Athenians. 
Plutarch relates that the capture of this town was accom- 
panied with three other fortunate events in the life of Philip, 
namely, the prize gained by his chariot at the Olympic games, 
a victory of his general Parmenio over the Illyrians, and the 
birth of his son Alexander. 

Foundation of Philippi (b. c. 356). — Philip now crossed 
the Strymon ; conquered the distict of Pangseus, a range of 
mountains abounding, in gold mines ; and founded there the 
city of Philippi. By improved methods in working *the 
mines, he made them yield an annual revenue of nearly 
$1,250,000. But it was chiefly as a military post and the 
key to ulterior conquests eastward, that Philippi was valua- 
ble to Macedonia. 

The Social (357-355) and the Sacred (351-346) 
War. — Two wars now raging in the Grecian world, the 
social and the sacred, singularly facilitated Philip's projects 
of aggrandizement. The chief cause of the social war, 
or war between Athens and her allies, was the contributions 
which she levied upon them. Most of them revolted, and 
after a three years' conflict secured their independence. The 
Athenians retained only some of the smaller towns and 
islands, and their revenue from this source was reduced to 
the moderate sum of 45 talents. 

The sacred war was occasioned by the ill will of the 
Thebans towards the Phocians. Taking advantage of their 
influence in the Amphictyonic council, the Thebans induced 
this body to impose a heavy fine on the Phocians, because 
they had cultivated a spot consecrated to the Delphian god. 
The Phocians, driven to despair by the exorbitant amount 
of the fine, seized the temple of Delphi itself, and used its 



286 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXllL 

treasure to pay their troops. During the war which ensued* 
Philip penetrated into Thessaly ; and, assuming - the character 
of a champion of the Delphic god, encountered and defeated 
the Phocians. This victory made him master of Thessaly 
(B. C. 352). 

Demosthenes (b. c. 382-322) — the Student, Ora- 
tor, and Statesman. — After his return from Thessaly, 
Philip's views were directed towards Thrace and the Cher- 
sonese. It was at this juncture that the Athenian orator 
Demosthenes stepped forward as his declared opponent, 
and delivered the first of those celebrated orations which, 
from their subject, ^have been called Philippics Demos- 
thenes was the son of a rich Athenian citizen. Having lost 
his father at the early age of seven, he fell into the hands of 
faithless guardians, who defrauded him of the greater part 
of his inheritance. But this misfortune was one of the 
causes that made him an orator. Wishing to plead his own 
case at some future day, he placed himself under the 
tuition of the rhetor Isaeus; and, so soon as he felt qualified, 
accused his guardians before the dicastery. His success en- 
couraged him to speak in the public assembly. But here 
his weak voice, imperfect articulation, and ungraceful de- 
livery, coupled with the want of a proper degree of assur- 
ance, provoked general laughter. The more judicious of 
his hearers, however, perceived marks of genius in his 
speech ; and one of them, rightly attributing his failure to 
timidity and want of due preparation, bade him take cour- 
age and persevere. Thereupon Demosthenes, withdrawing 
awhile from public life, subjected himself to a fresh process 
of training. To strengthen his voice and accustom himself 
,to the noise of popular assemblies, he declaimed on the sea- 
shore, amidst the roaring of the waves, and whilst walking 
in steep places. He corrected his articulation by pronoun- 
cing several verses together with pebbles in his mouth. He 
perfected his delivery through the assistance of Satyrus, the 
actor, who exercised him in reciting passages from Sophocles 
and Euripides. Nor did he fail to increase his knowledge 
also and improve his style of composition, studying for this 
purpose the best rhetorical treatises and orations, and copy- 
ing, we are told, no fewer than eight times the whole history 
of Thucydides. And in this most laborious course he per- 
severed throughout his whole career. He had a small sub- 
terranean chamber built, where he would often remain 



B- C. 359-336. PHILIP II OF MACEDON. 287 

engaged in study for two or three months together, shaving 
one side of his head, that the shame of appearing in this con- 
dition might prevent him from leaving his retreat. Here, by 
the light of a lamp, he composed the admirable orations 
which were said by the envious to smell of oil. " Yours," 
he would reply on such occasion, " most assuredly did not 
cost you so much trouble." He rose very early, in order, 
as he said, that no one might be at work sooner than he. 
Such application was crowned with merited success. De- 
mosthenes carried the art of speech to the highest perfec- 
tion. Before the period we have reached, he had already 
established himself as a public speaker. But it is chiefly in 
connection with Philip that we view him now. As a states- 
man and an orator, he so ably defended the cause of Grecian 
liberty, that he was feared by Philip, honored by the Persian 
king, and admired by all Greece. 

Phocion. — Fall of Olynthus (b. c. 347). — The first 
Philippic of Demosthenes failed to rouse his countrymen, 
who no longer had that spirit of enterprise which charac- 
terized them in the days of their supremacy. It was not 
till Olynthus, with its confederacy of 32 Greek towns, began 
to be seriously menaced, that the Athenians were induced 
to prosecute the war with some energy. In three celebrated 
orations, the Olynthiacs, Demosthenes warmly advocated 
an alliance with Olynthus, the last counterpoise to the power 
of Philip. But he was opposed by a strong party, with 
which Phocion commonly acted. This Phocion viewed the 
multitude and their affairs with a scorn which he was at no 
pains to disguise, receiving their anger with indifference and 
their praises with contempt. Yet, his known probity gave 
him influence with the assembfy. He was the only states- 
man that Demosthenes feared ; and, when Phocion rose, the 
great orator was accustomed to say, " Here comes the 
pruner of my periods." But Phocion's desponding views, 
and his mistrust of the Athenian people, injured the cause 
of his country, by contributing to check the more enlarged 
and patriotic views of Demosthenes. Though his own con- 
duct was pure and disinterested, he unintentionally threw 
his weight on the side of those who, like Demades and 
others, were actuated by the basest motives. This division 
of opinion rendered the operations of the Athenians for the 
aid of the Olynthians, languid and desultory. Town after 
town of the confederacy fell before Philip; and, in 347, 



288 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIII. 

Olynthus itself was taken. The whole of the Chalcidian 
peninsula thus became a Macedonian province. 

End of the Sacred War (b. c. 340). — In the sacred 
war, the Athenians had taken side with Phocis against 
Thebes. But, growing weary of the protracted struggle, they 
discontinued their aid to the Phocians, who were forced to 
submit to Philip. This prince then occupied Delphi, where 
he assembled the Amphictyons to pronounce sentence upon 
those who had been concerned in the sacrilege. The council 
decreed that all the cities of Phocis, except Abse, should be 
destroyed. On this occasion, Sparta was deprived of her 
share in the Amphictyonic privileges, and the two votes in 
the council possessed by the Phocians were transferred to the 
kings of Macedonia. These were, henceforth, to share 
with the Thebans and Thessalians the honor of presiding at 
the Pythian games. 

Battle of Ch^eronea (b. c. 338). — Philip's next enter- 
prise was against the Chersonese and the Athenian colonies 
in that quarter. This act of aggression at last opened the 
eyes of the Athenians. They now listened to Demosthenes, 
and sent such troops as forced Philip not only to raise the 
siege of Byzantium and Perinthus, but to evacuate the 
Chersonese altogether. His partisans in Greece, however, 
were busy, and procured him a fresh opportunity of marching 
again into the very heart of that divided country. 

Amphissa, a Locrian town, having been declared guilty 
of sacrilege by the Amphictyonic council, Philip was requested 
to inflict punishment upon the offenders. But, instead 
of proceeding to Amphissa, he seized the important town of 
Elat^a, thus showing that his real design was against Bceotia 
and Attica. The Athenians thereupon allied themselves 
with the Thebans, in order to drive back the common 
enemy. But the Macedonian giant was now too strong to 
be successfully resisted. Philip v met the confederates at 
Chseronea; and, with the help of his youthful son Alexander, 
under whom he placed his left wing, gained a decisive 
victory which laid Greece at his feet. In a congress held at 
Corinth the following year, war was declared against 
Persia, and Philip was appointed generalissimo of the ex- 
pedition. But death surprised him before his preparations 
were completed (b. c. 336). 

Philip's Literary Attainments. — An excellent gen- 
eral and an able sovereign, Philip also possessed literary 



B- C. 359-336. PHILIP II OF MACEDON. 2 8q 

attainments, and was not less skillful in using the pen than in 
wielding the sword. Desiring to vindicate his political con- 
duct in the eyes of the Athenians, he addressed to them a 
letter, , which for vigor of thought, strength of reasoning, and 
elegance of style, is considered a masterpiece. Eloquent 
himself, he entertained the highest idea of the eloquence of 
Demosthenes, and feared it more than the Athenian arms. 
He esteemed learned men, and knew the importance of 
education. At the birth of his son Alexander, he wrote 
thus to Aristotle : "I inform you that Heaven has blessed 
me with the birth of a son. I return thanks to the gods, not 
so much for having given him to me, as for having given him 
during the life of Aristode. I can justly promise myself 
that you will render him a successor worthy of me, and a 
king worthy of Macedonia." 

Illustrative Anecdotes.— Several anecdotes are related 
of Philip, which further illustrate his character. Whilst he 
was engaged in the siege of Methdne, in Thrace, a certain 
man, called Aster, offered to serve in his army as marksman, 
saying he was so skillful that he could bring down birds in 
their most rapid flight. Philip replied, that he would take 
him into his service, when he waged war against meadow- 
larks. This answer deeply wounded the feelings of the 
archer. Having thrown himself into the besieged town, he 
shot an arrow on which was written, " To Philip's right eye," 
and which actually pierced the right eye of the prince. The 
king sent back the same arrow with this inscription : " If 
Philip takes Methon6, he will hang Aster ; " and so he did. 

As he was rising one day from a long repast, a woman 
applied to him for justice, but failed to persuade him of the 
strength of her reasons. When he gave judgment against her, 
"I appeal," she exclaimed. "Why?" said Philip, "you 
appeal from your sovereign ! and to whom ? " " To Philip 
in his sober senses." The answer struck the monarch ; he 
reconsidered the affair, and reversed his former sentence. 

Another woman had frequently begged him to terminate 
her lawsuit; but Philip always answered that he had not 
time. Annoyed by these refusals, she replied with emotion: 
" If you have no time to do me justice, cease to be king." 
Philip felt the rebuke. Far from being offended, he imme- 
diately satisfied her, and was afterwards more punctual in 
giving audience. 

Although Philip availed himself of the treasonable prac- 

25 , 



29 o MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIII. 

tices of others for his own purposes, he heartily despised the 
traitors. Having bribed two citizens of Olynthus to betray 
their city into his hands, he took an early opportunity to 
manifest his contempt for them. Every one, even the common 
soldiers of the Macedonian army, reproached these men with 
their perfidy. They complained to the king, who contented 
himself with answering : " Do not mind what may be said by 
vulgar people, who call things by their name." 



CHAPTER XXIII. 

Alexander the Great. — b. c. 336-323. 

Alexander's Education. — Alexander's extraordinary 
endowments were well improved by the care of excellent 
tutors and his own application. To Aristotle, whose lessons 
he began to receive at about the age of thirteen, he thought 
himself no less indebted than to his father Philip. Under 
him, he made rapid progress in every branch of knowledge, 
acquired a manly eloquence, and imbibed considerable relish 
for all the fine arts. But, in the midst of his studies, Alexan- 
der already manifested an insatiable thirst for glory. When- 
ever news was brought that Philip had taken some city or 
gained a victory, "Alas ! " he would say to his companions, 
"my father will make every conquest, and leave us nothing 
to do." 

His First Exploits. — Appointed regent during his 
father's absence, when only sixteen years of age, he learned 
that some barbarous tribe had revolted. Without a mo- 
ment's hesitation, he marched against the rebels, and took 
their city. Having expelled the inhabitants, he replaced 
them with people collected from various parts, and gave to 
the town the name of Alexandropolis. At seventeen, in the 
famous battle of Chseronea, he displayed the intrepidity of a 
veteran and the skill of a general. He was the first to break 
the sacred band of the Thebans. 

His Accession (b c. 336). — A still more extended field 
for the display of his abilities opened before Alexander, 
when, at twenty, he succeeded his father. The situation 
was extremely critical. He had many rivals at home. 



B. C. 336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 2QI 

Abroad, the conquered nations were ready to shake off the 
yoke. Throughout Greece, at Athens especially, under the 
impulse of Demosthenes, vigorous preparations were made 
against him. Alexander was equal to the occasion. He 
seized the throne, and executed or drove out his rivals. Fore- 
stalling any open hostility on the part of Greece, he marched 
in haste to Corinth, and required the same leadership that 
had been granted to his father, as generalissimo for the Per- 
sian war. 

Diogenes. — When at Corinth, Alexander was visited by 
many philosophers and persons of note, who came to con- 
gratulate him. But Diogenes of Sinop6, who was then living 
in one of the suburbs, did not make his appearance. Alex- 
ander, therefore, resolved to pay a visit to the eccentric 
cynic, whom he found basking in the sun. On the approach 
of Alexander, Diogenes raised himself up a little, and the 
monarch affably inquired how he could serve him. " By 
standing out of my sunshine," replied the churlish philoso- 
pher. Alexander was struck with surprise at a behavior to 
which he was so little accustomed. While his retinue were 
ridiculing the manners of the cynic, he turned to them, and 
said : " Were I not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes." 

Destruction of Thebes (b. c. 335). — Having, as he 
thought, settled the affairs of Greece, Alexander retraced 
his steps northward, in the hope of being able to begin his 
Persian expedition in the spring of B. c. 335. But reports 
of disturbances among the Thracians and Triballians di- 
verted his attention to that quarter. He marched into Thrace, 
defeated the Triballians in a great battle near the Danube, 
made the Getse flee at his approach, subdued several other 
tribes, and, notwithstanding the bold assertion of their am- 
bassadors that their only fear was lest the heavens should 
fall upon them, caused all to respect his power. 

Meanwhile a false report of his death induced Thebes to 
raise the standard of revolt. Demosthenes was active in 
aiding the movement. He persuaded the Athenians to fur- 
nish the Thebans with subsidies, and to assure them of sup- 
port. On learning this, Alexander, then in Illyria, marched 
straight southward. When he had passed the Thermopylae, 
he said to his followers : " Demosthenes called me a child 
whilst I was among the Tribalians and Illyrians. He called 
me a youth, when I was in Thessaly ; and I must now show 
him, near the walls of Athens, that J am a grown man." 



2Q2 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXllL 

Having surprised the Thebans by the rapidity of his march; 
he defeated them with great slaughter, levelled all the houses 
except that of Pindar, and sold the inhabitants as slaves. 
This signal vengeance had the effect intended. All Greece 
was terror-struck. Alexander felt that he might commence 
to carry out his designs against Persia in tolerable security. 
Greece was not now likely to rebel, unless he suffered some 
considerable reverse, 

Alexander, Demosthenes, and Phocion. — When 
the Athenians heard of the chastisement inflicted upon 
Thebes, they immediately voted that ambassadors should be 
sent to congratulate Alexander on his safe return from his 
northern expedition, and on his recent success. Alexander, 
in reply, wrote a letter, demanding that eight or ten of the 
leading Athenian orators should be delivered up to him. At 
the head of the list was Demosthenes. The young conqueror, 
however, through regard for Phocion, relented ; and the 
orators were soared. — It was at this time that Alexander is 

x 

said to have sent a present of 10.3 talents to Phocion. But 
Phocion asked the persons who brought the money, "why he 
should be selected for such a bounty." " Because," they 
replied, " Alexander considers you the only just and honest; 
man, in this place." " Then," said Phocion, refusing the 
gift, "let him suffer me to be what I seem and retain that, 
character." 

Darius hi Codomannus (b. c. 336-333). — The prince 
who was now reigning in Persia, was Darius hi Codomannus, 
whom historians represent as a brave, kind, and generous 
prince. In ordinary circumstances, he might have reigned 
with honor. It was his misfortune to have to contend against 
such an enemy as Alexander. His empire, moreover, though 
it still maintained a show of splendor, was tottering to its 
fall, owing to the degeneracy of Persian manners, the fre- 
quent revolts of the provinces, and the almost incessant 
intrigues and conspiracies which, during previous reigns, had. 
distracted the court itself. 

Persian Policy. — Persia, however, in the midst of all 
these evils, had not been totally wanting to itself. Dis- 
trusting the growing power of Macedonia, the Persian 
government, previous to the accession of Darius, had com- 
bined with Athens and prevented Philip from obtaining the 
command of the Bosphorus, by saving from his grasp the cities 
ofPerinthus and Byzantium. Darius himself, who ascended 



B. C. 336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. • 293 

the throne the same year with Alexander, was ready to 
resume against the new Macedonian monarch the policy pur- 
sued against his father. But Alexander's prompt and decisive 
measures defeated all such plans. Greece was awed into 
submission ; and Persia, instead of carrying war into the 
enemy's territory, was on the point of being herself invaded, 
overrun, and subjugated. 

Battle of the Granicus (b. c. 334). — Having 
appointed Antipater to govern Macedonia in his absencej 
Alexander crossed the Hellespont with about 35,000 men — 
a small force compared to the vast multitudes which the 
Persians could bring to the field, but all true soldiers, who 
deemed themselves invincible under their invincible leader. 
On the banks of the Granicus, in Phrygia, they encountered 
the first hostile array, which, from the opposite shore, was 
ready to dispute the passage of the river. Without the least 
hesitation, Alexander, at the head of his cavalry, threw him- 
self into the stream and rushed against the Persians. A 
battle-axe, brandished by a vigorous hand, broke his helmet. 
A second stroke was about to follow, when Clitus saved the 
king's life by cutting offthe hand of the Persian warrior. The 
Macedonian horsemen, greatly excited by the perilous situa- 
tion of their leader, pressed onward with the utmost rapidity, 
and succeeded in putting the enemy's cavalry to flight. Then, 
in concert with the phalanx, which had now crossed the 
river, they fell upon the Persian infantry, and utterly routed 
them. This victory placed Asia Minor at the mercy of the 
invader, and Alexander with his usual celerity proceeded to 
overrun it. 

The Gordian Knot. — In the course of these expedi- 
tions, Alexander forced his way to Gordium, once the capi- 
tal of the Phrygian kings. Here was preserved the chariot 
in which the celebrated Midas, the son of Gordius, had en- 
tered the town, before he was elevated to the monarchy. 
An ancient prophecy promised the sovereignty of Asia to 
him who should untie the knot of bark, which fastened the 
yoke of the wagon to the pole. Alexander repaired to the 
acropolis, where the vehicle was kept, to attempt this feat. 
Whether he untied the knot by drawing out a peg, or cut it 
through with his sword, is a matter of doubt; but that he 
had fulfilled the prediction, was placed beyond dispute, 
the ensuing night, by a great storm of thunder and light- 
ning. 



-294 



MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIII. 



Alexander's Illness.— In the spring of b. c. 333, 
Alexander resumed his march eastwards. After crossing 
Cappadocia and the passes of Mount Taurus, he descended 
into the plains of Cilicia, and pushed oil rapidly to Tarsus. 
Here, while still heated with the march, he plunged into the 
clear but cold stream of the Cydnus, which runs by the town. 
The result was a dangerous fever. Aware of the approach 
of the Persians, the sick monarch desired his physicians to 
prescribe strong remedies, since he preferred a speedy death 
to a slow cure. But his impatience alarmed everyone, and 
none was found willing to undertake so perilous a case. At 
last, however, the Acarnanian Philip, who was much attached 
to Alexander, thought it his duty to comply, and set about 
preparing the desired remedy. In the meantime, the king 
received from Parmenio, his most trusty general, a note 
stating that Philip had been bribed by the Persians to poison 
his sovereign. When the physician brought the medicine, 
Alexander gave him the letter to read, and, at the same in- 
stant, taking the cup from, his hands, swallowed the whole 
draught without hesitation. Philip showed more indigna- 
tion than fear. "My lord," said he, "your recovery will soon 
place my innocence in the clearest light" Within three 
days Alexander was restored to health. 

Battle of Issus (b. c. 333). — In the meantime, king 
Darius was approaching at the head of an almost countless 
multitude. He had intended to fight in the plain of Antioch, 
where there was room enough for his vast army. But, as 
Alexander did not come to meet him, he grew impatient, 
and advanced into the defiles which lie between Syria and 
Cilicia. Their forces met, almost without warning, in a po- 
sition where numbers gave no advantage. Hence the issue 
of the combat was not long uncertain. Alexander, with his 
right wing, soon broke the left of the Persians. On behold- 
ing their defeat, the timid Darius immediately took to flight. 
His example was followed by his whole army. His camp 
and treasures were taken, together with his 'mother and 
wife, his two daughters and infant son. 

The conqueror at once proceeded to utilize his victory by 
securing Phoenicia and Egypt, the possession of which 
would give him the command of the sea. 

Capture of Tyre and Gaza (b. c. 332). — During 
Alexander's march through Phoenicia and Palestine, only 
two cities — Tyre and Gaza — closed their gates. Tyre was 



B. C. 336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 2Q$ 

by nature a place of great strength, and had been rendered 
still stronger by art. The island on which it stood, was half 
a mile distant from the main-land ; and, though the channel 
was shallow near the coast, it deepened to three fathoms 
near the island. As Alexander possessed no ships, the only 
method by which he could approach the town, was by fill- 
ing the gap between it and the continent. This astonishing 
work he accomplished, in spite of winds and waves and in- 
cessant attacks from the besieged. When the mole was at 
length pushed to the foot of the walls, and a practicable 
breach had been effected, he ordered a general assault. The 
Tyrians made a desperate resistance. Even after the out- 
ward fortifications were carried by storm, they still defended 
the avenues and streets with incredible obstinacy. Exasper- 
ated by the difficulties they had undergone, the besiegers 
showed themselves unmerciful. Alexander caused 2,000 of 
the inhabitants to be crucified, and had the remainder put 
to the sword or sold into slavery. The strong city of Gaza, 
which held out about three months, was treated with equal 
severity. 

Alexander and the Jews. — The Jewish historian Jo- 
sephus relates that, after the fall of Tyre, Alexander went up 
to Jerusalem, intending to punish its inhabitants for their fi- 
delity to the Persian king. But, through God's special 
providence, his heart was suddenly changed at the sight of 
the high-priest Jaddus, who came to meet him out of the 
city. The king recognized in that pontiff a venerable per- 
sonage, who once appeared to him in his sleep, and promised 
him the empire of Asia. His admiration increased, when he 
saw, in the book of Daniel's prophecies, the predictions con- 
cerning him, which foretold the overthrow of the Persian em- 
pire by a Greek prince. — Whatever may be thought of these 
details, it is certain that Alexander not only maintained, but 
augmented the privileges conferred on the Jews by the Per- 
sian government. By his conquest, Judea was brought un- 
der the influence of the Greek language and Greek ideas ; 
and the contest of the old religious patriotism with these in- 
fluences will form, for a considerable period, her chief 
history. 

Alexander in Egypt (b. c. 332).— From Gaza, Alex- 
ander advanced into Egypt. The Persians, by disregarding 
the national superstitions, had incurred the hatred of the 
natives. Alexander, by following an opposite line of con- 



296 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIII. 

duct, conciliated their affection, and subjected the whole 
country to his power without any opposition. 

Alexandria. — The favorable situation of the coast near 
the western mouth of the Nile, induced the Macedonian con- 
queror to trace there the plan of the new city of Alexandria, 
which became, and remained for several ages, not only the 
greatest emporium in the world, but also the principal centre 
of intellectual life. 

The Oracle of Ammon. — Being now on the confines 
of Libya, Alexander resolved to visit the celebrated oracle 
of Zeus Ammon. He was received by the priests with all 
the honors of sacred pomp, consulted the oracle in secret, 
and is said to have been saluted by Ammon as the eon of 
Jupiter. After thus gratifying his vanity, Alexander re- 
turned to Egypt. He visited the rising city of Alexandria, 
granted valuable privileges to the inhabitants, and settled 
the government both military and civil of the whole country. 
He then set out for Palestine and Phoenicia, in order to give 
his undivided attention to affairs of the east. 

Proposals of Darius.— Soon after the battle of Issus, 
Darius had sent a letter to Alexander, offering to become 
his friend and ally. These first overtures being rejected > the 
Persian king made further and more advantageous proposals. 
He offered, to pay 10,000 talents, to cede all the provinces 
west of the Euphrates, and to give Alexander his daughter 
Barsine in marriage. When the young conqueror, who was 
then engaged in the siege of Tyre, submitted these offers to 
his council, Parmenio was not unnaturally struck with their 
magnificence, and observed that, were he Alexander, he 
would accept them. " And so would I," replied the king, 
"were I Parmenio." As nothing less than the possession of 
the whole world could satisfy the ambition of his foe, 
Darius prepare^ himself for a desperate resistance. He col- 
lected all the forces of the empire, and awaited the invaders 
in an open plain, some twenty miles from Arbela, on ground 
carefully selected and prepared. 

Battle of Arbela (b. c. 331).— Alexander was allowed 
to reach unmolested the neighborhood of the Persian camp. 
Here, before leading his men to the attack, he gave them a 
few days' rest. His army consisted of only 40 000 foot and 
7,000 horse. That of Darius was, at least, ten times larger, 
and included, it is said, 50,000 Greek mercenaries. But 
paucity of numbers, on the Macedonian side, was compen- 



B. C. 336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT . 2C;7 

sated by the superior resolution of the men, and, above all, 
by the greater genius of the leader. Indeed such was the 
tranquillity with which Alexander contemplated the result 
of the approaching conflict, that, at daybreak on the morn- 
ing of the battle, when the officers came to receive his final 
instructions, they found him in deep slumber. At the head 
of his cavalry, he broke, without much difficulty, the Per- 
sian left, and then fell upon the centre, where Darius stood, 
surrounded by his best troops. These, animated by the 
presence of their sovereign, fought with considerable 
bravery. But they could not long withstand the impet- 
uosity of the Macedonians. Alexander approached so 
near to the chariot of Darius, that, with a javelin, he killed 
the driver. Many, on both sides, imagined that Darius 
himself was slain, and the Persians began to give way. Up 
to this moment, Darius had behaved with judgment and 
coolness. But now, believing that all was lost, he ran away, 
mounted a fleet horse, and the rout of the Persians soon 
became general. 

Death of Darius (b. c. 330). — The conflict at Arbela 
was decisive. The three capitals, Babylon, Susa, and Per- 
sepolis, surrendered to Alexander. Darius became a fugi- 
tive, and soon after a prisoner in the hands of . one his 
satraps, Bessus, who entertained the design of estab- 
lishing himself in Bactria as an independent sovereign. In 
that direction Bessus was hastening with his royal captive, 
when Alexander, who had long been on the track of the 
fugitives, overtook them with part of his cavalry and a chosen 
body of foot. Warned by the approaching danger, Bessus 
now endeavored to persuade Darius to flee with him, and 
provided a fleet horse for that purpose. But the Persian 
monarch refused, preferring to trust to the generosity of 
Alexander, whereupon he was pierced with arrows, and left 
on the road mortally wounded. He was thus found by a 
Macedonian, of whom he asked a drink of water. Then, 
pressing the soldier's hand, he requested him to convey his 
thanks to Alexander for the great kindness shown to his 
family, and expired. In a few moments, Alexander came 
up, and threw his own cloak over the body. He then 
ordered him to be magnificently buried in the tomb of his an- 
cestors, and provided for the fitting education of his children. 

Further Conquests (b. c. 330-328). — The pursuit of 
both Darius and Bessus led Alexander in an incredibly short 



29 8 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIII. 

space of time through Media, Hyrcania, Aria, Drangiana, 
and Bactria, all of which provinces successively yielded. 
Marching thence to the north, he crossed the Jaxartes, and 
defeated the Scythians. Then, retracing his steps, he com- 
pleted the reduction of Sogdiana, the only portion of the 
empire which offered any serious resistance. At Maracanda 
(now Sa??zarcandX the capital of Sogdiana, he married a 
Bactrian princess, named Roxana. Here also it was that, 
enraged at some disparaging remarks made by Clitus, he 
ran him through the body with a spear. 

Invasion of India (b. c. 327-326). — After reducing 
Sogdiana, Alexander returned into Bactria, whence the way 
was opened into a new world, generally believed to be one 
of immense wealth — India. The sovereign of Penj-ab, 
Taxiles, surrendered his district, and joined the Macedonian 
force with 5,000 men. Thence Alexander proceeded to the 
river Hydaspes. On the opposite bank, Porus, a powerful 
king, stood ready to dispute his progress with a large and 
well-appointed force. Alexander made preparations, as if 
he meant to pass the river in front of the enemy ; but, in the 
night, conveyed his army safely across in another place. 
An obstinate battle ensued. The elephants of the enemy, 
at first, occasioned some confusion among the Greeks. But 
these unwieldy animals ultimately proved as dangerous to 
the Indians as to the invaders ; for, when driven into a nar- 
row passage, they became unmanageable, and contributed in 
no small degree to the defeat of Porus. Mounted on an 
enormous elephant, this prince continued to fight long after 
the day was lost, and he would not surrender till overcome 
by thirst and fatigue. He appeared before his conqueror, 
still retaining his majestic bearing, the effect of which was 
increased by the extraordinary height of his stature. On 
Alexander's inquiring how he wished to be treated, he re- 
plied, " Like a king." " And have you no other request?" 
asked Alexander. "No," answered Porus; "everything is 
comprehended in the word king." Struck by his answer, 
Alexander not only reinstated him in his kingdom, but even 
added to it several provinces. 

Homeward March (b. c. 325). — -Alexander rested a 
month on the banlf s of the Hydaspes, where he. celebrated 
his victory by games and sacrifices. He then overran the 
whole of the Penj-ab, as far as the Hyphasis, its southern 
boundary. It was his intention to cross the Ganges, and 



B. C. 336-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 



299 



complete the subjugation of the continent. But the army, 
worn out with their toils, positively refused to proceed any 
farther. Thus compelled to desist from a forward move- 
ment, Alexander would not retrace his steps, but returned 
by an entirely new route. Following the course of the In- 
dus in ships built for the purpose, he conquered the valley 
as he descended. Upon arriving at the mouth of the river, 
Nearchus, with the fleet, was directed to explore the Indian 
Ocean, the Persian Gulf, and the mouth of the Tigris and 
Euphrates. Alexander himself proceeded with the bulk of 
his troops, by land, in the direction of Persepolis, marching 
on foot and sharing the privations and fatigues of his men. 
Their sufferings in the desert of Gedrosia were terrible, and 
the losses here incurred exceeded those of all the rest of the 
expedition. At length, they emerged into the fertile prov- 
ince of Carmania, and soon after entered Persepolis, whence 
they proceeded to Susa. 

Alexander at Susa (b. c. 325). — Upon reaching Susa, 
Alexander allowed his soldiers time to repose from their 
fatigues, and amused them with a series of brilliant festivi- 
ties. He celebrated his nuptials with Statira, the oldest 
daughter of Darius, caused about 100 of his officers to es- 
pouse Asiatic women of rank, and encouraged no fewer than 
10,000 of the common soldiers to take native wives. Be- 
sides these intermarriages, he adopted another means of 
amalgamating the Europeans and the Asiatics, by enlisting 
numbers of the latter into his army. But these inovations, 
particularly the last, were regarded with a jealous eye by 
most of the Macedonian veterans. Their discontent was in- 
creased by the conduct of Alexander, who assumed more 
and more the state and manners of an eastern despot, and 
they profited by a review to break into open mutiny. Alex- 
ander's decision, however, promptly restored order. He 
commanded thirteen of the ringleaders to be seized and ex- 
ecuted ; and, addressing the remainder, he upbraided them 
for their conduct, showing how, by his own and his fathers 
exertions, they had been raised from the condition of scat- 
tered herdsmen to be the masters of Greece and the lords of 
Asia. He then secluded himself for two whole days, du- 
ring which his Macedonian guard was exchanged for a Per- 
sian one, while nobles of the same nation were appointed to 
the most confidential posts about his person. Ashamed of 
themselves, the Macedonians now supplicated with tears to 



3 oo MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIIL, 

be restored to favor. A solemn reconciliation was effected 
and 10,000 veterans were allowed to return home. Soon 
after these occurences, Alexander proceeded to Ecbatana. 
Here Hephaestion, his bosom friend, was carried off by a 
fever. By this loss Alexander was plunged into a deep 
melancholy, from which he never entirely recovered. 

Alexander at Babylon (b. c. 324-323). — His Death. 
— Alexander reentered Babylon in the spring of B. c. 324. 
Ambassadors from all parts of Greece, from Libya, Italy, 
and probably from still more distant regions, were waiting 
to salute him, and do homage to him as the conqueror of 
Asia. He gave them audience with a dignity worthy of a 
great monarch, and, at the same time, with the affability of 
a prince desirous of winning universal affection. In the 
mean while, his mind was occupied with new enterprises — the 
conquest of Arabia, the circumnavigation of Africa, the war 
against Carthage, and the subjugation of Europe. Death, 
however, prevented the execution of these projects. At the 
close of a banquet, he was seized with a violent fever, and 
in a few days was reduced to extremity. As a last mark of 
affection, he presented his hand for the soldiers to kiss, and 
shortly after expired. His premature death makes it im- 
possible to determine whether Alexander's administrative 
abilities were on a par with his military genius ; whether or 
not he would have succeeded in consolidating his vast hete- 
rogeneous empire. Cut off unexpectedly in the vigor of early 
manhood, he left no inheritor of his power or of his projects. 
The empire which he had so rapidly constructed, was 
broken into fragments soon after his death. 

Character of Alexander. — Of all the conquerors of 
antiquity, Alexander was without doubt the most renowned. 
In an incredibly short space of time, he overran and subdued 
the greater part of the then known world. His strategic 
ability was of the highest order ; his boldness and activity 
most surprising; his power of communicating his own en- 
thusiasm to his troops, without example. He won their confi- 
dence by his abilities, their affection by his kindness, and 
their devotedness by his readiness to share the common 
dangers. He studied to awake courage and arouse emula- 
tion, by conferring merited praise and rewards. Seeing one 
day a soldier, who, by taking a load on himself, sought thus 
to relieve a mule laden with the king's money, he cried out, 
"Hold on, my friend, the rest of the way, and carry the bur- 



B. C. 326-323. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 3OI 

den to your own tent ; for the treasure is yours." At the 
time of a difficult march, some Macedonians, seeing the king 
greatly distressed with thirst, presented him some water in a 
helmet. Alexander took the helmet ; but, observing that 
those around him were suffering like himself, and that there 
was not water enough for all, he refused to drink it. He is 
said to have shed tears over the body of Darius, whose 
family he treated with great generosity ; he behaved toward 
Porus with like magnanimity. His confidence in his physi- 
cian Philip is also a touching incident. 

But, in contrast to these actions, how many others there 
are that must lower our estimation of Alexander ! The bat- 
tle of Issus began to work a fatal change in his moral char- 
acter. After that of Arbela, which raised him to the height 
of human glory, he plunged into an abyss of degrading ex- 
cesses. Not satisfied with imitating the Persian manners, he 
required adoration to be paid to him by his new subjects. 
He began to indulge in intemperance and debauchery ; and, 
in the paroxysms of his anger, often proved as formidable 
to his friends as he was in battle to his enemies. He put to 
death, on a slight suspicion of conspiracy, his most distin- 
guished generals, Philotas, the son of Parmenio, and Par- 
menio himself. He caused the virtuous philosopher Callis- 
thenes, who had rebuked his pride, to expire in the midst of 
torments ; and, as before related, when heated with wine, he 
killed with his own hand, Clitus, the officer who had saved 
his life in the battle of the Granicus. More than this, he 
sacrificed, without a single pang of remorse, numberless 
fellow-creatures, merely to gratify his thirst for glory. 

Beneficial Results. — His achievements, however, 
though they undoubtedly occasioned great partial misery, 
must be regarded as beneficial to the human race. By his 
conquests, the two continents were put into closer communi- 
cation with each other; and both, but particularly Asia, 
were the gainers. The language, the arts, and the literature 
of Greece, were introduced into the east. An opening was 
thus made for the Roman conquest first, and afterwards for 
the spread of the gospel 



26 



3 o2 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIV. 

CHAPTER XXIV. 

From the Death of Alexander to the Battle of Ipsus. — 

b. c. 323-301. 

A Period of Anarchy (b. c. 323-315). — Alexander, on 
his death-bed, is said to have foretold that his friends would 
celebrate his obsequies with many bloody conflicts. Such 
was the case. Anarchy set in ; and, for twenty-two years, the 
history of his successors presents but little else than a series 
of dissensions, usurpations, and murders. Within a short 
time, Alexander's queen Statira, his mother Olympias, his 
half-brother Philip Arrhidaeus, his Bactrian wife Roxana, 
and his posthumons son Alexander, were all put to death. 
Meanwhile his chief officers wrangled and fought among 
themselves, until three successive regents, Perdiccas, Antip- 
ater, and Poiysperchon, had come to a natural or violent end, 
as also did Craterus, Leonnatus, and Eumenes. The latter 
was the only one to show loyalty to the family of his master. 
The contest for preeminence was henceforth confined to 
Ptolemy, Seleucus, Antigonus, Lysimachus, and Cassander, 
who presided respectively over Egypt, the satrapy of Baby- 
lon, Asia Minor, Thrace, and Macedonia. 

Coalition against Antigonus (b. c. 315-31 i). — 
Antigonus, by his victories over Eumenes which gave him 
control of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia besides the satrapy 
of Babylon, was thought to have acquired excessive power. 
This led to a general coalition against him, consisting of 
Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus. For four 
years, war was carried on with great vigor in Syria, Phoe- 
nicia, Asia Minor, and Greece. It produced little results, 
however, beyond the mutual exhaustion of all parties ; and 
peace was made in B. C. 311, on condition that the Greek 
cities should be free. 

Demetrius Poliorcetes at Athens (b. c. 307).— 
Under the pretext that Antigonus had not withdrawn his gar- 
risons from Greece, Ptolemy renewed the war against him at 
the end of one year. Soon Cassander joined Ptolemy, and 
between them they took possession of all the principal 
Greek towns. To dislodge them, Antigonus, in the summer 
of 307 B. c, sent a large armament under his son Demetrius, 



B. C. 323-3OI. THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 303 

the same that afterwards obtained the name of Poliorcetes, or 
besieger of cities. The first exploit of this young, but skill- 
ful commander, was the taking of Athens, from which he 
expelled the Macedonian garrison. The restoration of their 
popular government, together with the promise of a large 
donation of corn and ship-timber, excited the enthusiasm of 
the Athenians. Both Demetrius and his father were deified ; 
and two new tribes, those of Antigonias and Demetrias, were 
added to the existing ten, which derived their names from 
the ancient heroes of Attica.— The census of Attica for the 
year 309 B. C, gave 21,000 freemen, 10,000 metics, and 
400,000 slaves. 

Battle of Salamis (b. c. 306). — The following year, 
Antigonus directed his son to undertake the siege of Salamis, 
in Cyprus. Ptolemy hastened to its relief with 140 vessels 
and 10,000 troops. The battle which ensued, is memorable 
in ancient naval warfare on account of the large size of the 
vessels engaged. Ptolemy was signally defeated, and Sala- 
mis surrendered. Antigonus celebrated this triumph of 
his arms by assuming himself, and conferring on his son, the 
title of king — an example which Ptolemy, Seleucus, and 
Lysimachus, shortly afterwards imitated. 

Siege of Rhodes (b.c. 305). — The Colossus. — Deme- 
trius next directed his efforts against the city of Rhodes, 
whose inhabitants had refused him their aid against the 
Egyptians. He attacked them with a fleet of 200 sail and 
40,000 men. The Rhodians, a brave and warlike people, 
well skilled in naval tactics, were dismayed neither by the 
reputation nor by the powerful armament of their enemy. 
To a gigantic attack they oppposed a no less formidable resis- 
tance. In proportion as Demetrius invented new machines 
to batter the walls or throw darts and stones, they contrived 
fresh means of destroying or rendering them harmless. Not 
being able to burn an immense tower, nine stories high, 
which, filled with smaller*engines, missiles, and combatants, 
seemed to forebode the fall of their city, they undermined the 
ground over which the terrible machine had to pass in its 
approach to the walls ; and when it reached the excavated 
spot, it sank so deep that no exertions of the besiegers could 
raise it again. Demetrius, despairing of success, entered 
into a treaty with the Rhodians, to whom he made a present 
of his war-machines. These they sold ; and, with the pro- 
duce of the sale, erected, at the entrance of their harbor, the 



304 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXIV. 

Colossus, or brazen statue of the sun, which was reckoned 
among the seven wonders of the world. 

Protogenes. — At the time of the siege of Rhodes, there 
lived, in the suburbs of that city, the celebrated painter Pro- 
togenes. Neither the presence of the enemy, nor the tumult 
of arms, could induce him to quit his abode, or discontinue 
his work. Being asked the reason, "I know," he said, "that 
Demetrius has declared war against the Rhodians, and not 
against the arts." Nor was he disappointed. Demetrius 
placed a guard round his house, and frequently went to see 
him at work. 

Military Engines of the Ancients*. — The most 
powerful machines used by the ancients in offensive warfare, 
was the aries, or battering ram — a long beam strengthened 
at one end with an iron head, and hung by the middle to 
another beam, which lay across a couple of strong posts. 
Being set in motion by a great number of men, it could 
shake and batter down any wall or tower. The ram was 
usually covered with a vinea, to protect it from the attacks 
of the enemy. 

Of the other offensive engines the principal were the 
Scorpio, Catapulta, and Batista. Smaller darts and arrows 
were thrown with the Scorpio ; javelins and spears, with the 
Catapulta ; and large stones, with the Batista. The force 
of the Batista and Catapulta was prodigious. A Batista 
three feet long, could send darts to the distance of 500 paces. 
Stones weighing 300 pounds, were cast forth to the distance 
of 1 25 paces. A soldier once had his head carried off by a 
stone discharged by an engine 1,800 feet distant. 

Among the machines intended for defence, may be men- 
tioned the vinece, musculi, and testudines. The yinece, or 
wooden galleries, were composed of posts and wicker hur- 
dles, forming a roof under which the soldiers might approach 
the walls in comparative safety, when preparing to scale 
1 

*They seem to have been invented, or, at any rate, to have come 
into use among the Greeks, shortly before the time of Alexander 
the Great. The Romans learned from the Greeks the art of build- 
ing these machines, and appear to have employed them for the 
first time, to any considerable extent, at the siege of Syracuse, in 
the second Punic war.— We here employ for these engines the 
Latin names, as being the most familiar to the classical student. 
Neither from the descriptions of authors, nor from the figures on 
coins or monuments, can we always form an exact idea of their 
construction. 



B. C. 323-301. THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER. 305 

them. The musculi and testudines (tortoises) were made of 
boards, and covered over with raw hides, to protect the as- 
sailants against the darts and blows of the besieged, while 
the former approached either the ditches to fill them up, or 
th& walls of the town to undermine them with pickaxes and 
other instruments, The musculi and testudines were borne 
upon wheels ; the vinecB y being comparatively light, were 
carried by the very soldiers whom they sheltered and pro- 
tected. The Roman legionaries often improvised a testudo 
with their shields, by merely holding them close together 
over their heads, like a roof. 

Battle of Ipsus (b. c. 301). — After his ineffectual at- 
tempt on Rhodes, Demetrius marched against Cassander, 
and reestablished the ascendency of his party in Greece. 
He then set out for Asia; and, joining his father Antigonus, 
advanced with him against the chief army of the confede- 
rates, commanded by Seleucus and Lysimachus. The 
rival hosts met near the city of Ipsus, in Phrygia. With 
his cavalry, Demetrius made so successful a charge, that he 
put the enemy to flight. But, having rashly continued the 
pursuit of the vanquished, he lost a victory which already 
was his. On his return, he found the way to his own army 
obstructed by the elephants of Seleucus. His infantry, left 
unsupported, was forced to surrender ; and his old father, 
Antigonus, after maintaining for a time the unequal contest, 
at last fell under a shower of darts. Demetrius, seeing every 
thing lost, collected 9,000 soldiers, and fled with them to 
Ephesus, whence he shortly after returned to Greece. 

The Four Kingdoms of Egypt, Thrace, Macedonia, 
and Syria. — After the battle of Ipsus, the four allied princes 
distributed among themselves the dominions of their van- 
quished enemy. Phcenicia, Ccelosyria, and Palestine, were 
added to the kingdom of Egypt ; the greater part of Asia 
Minor, to that of Thrace ; and Greece, to that of Mace- 
donia. The rest fell to the share of Seleucus, king of Syria, 
whose territory greatly exceeded that of the others. He 
founded on the Orontes a new capital of his empire, which 
he named Antioch, after his father, Antiochus, and which 
long continued to be one of the most important Greek cities 
in Asia. 



3 o6 EGYPT. Chapt. XXV. 

CHAPTER XXV. 

Egypt under the Ptolemies. — b. c. 323-222. 

Ptolemy i Soter (b. c. 323-285). — Ptolemy, son of La- 
gus, the founder of the Greek dynasty of the Lagides, or 
Ptolemies, was by the Rhodians surnamed Soter (savior), 
in acknowledgment of signal services which he conferred on 
them. He reigned about forty years, if we reckon from the 
death of Alexander, and sixteen from the battle of Ipsus. 
This prince was the ablest, as well as the best sovereign of 
his dynasty. He displayed, whilst on the throne, the same 
simplicity which characterized him before his accession; and, 
when told that his dignity required greater pomp and 
splendor, he answered that a king ought to make his true 
greatness consist not in being rich himself, but in enriching 
others. Ptolemy was a patron of learning. He did much to 
promote its progress, and laid the foundation of the Alexan- 
drian library, so justly famed for the number of its volumes, 
which amounted, in the course of time, to no fewer than 
700,000. 

Ptolemy ii (b. c. 285-249), ironically surnamed Phila- 
delphus (friend of his brothers), because he put two of them 
to death, inherited from his father a great esteem and relish 
for the fine arts, sciences, and learned men. He completed 
the building of the lighthouse of Pharos, one of the seven 
wonders of the world. He made valuable additions to the 
library founded by his predecessor, and enriched it with a 
translation of the Old Testament from Hebrew into Greek. 
This is the version known under the name of the Septnagint, 
or of the seventy interpreters. The work is supposed to 
have been executed at the suggestion of Demetrius Pha- 
lereus, who, after governing Athens for ten years, had with- 
drawn into Egypt, and become the superintendent of the 
Alexandrian library. 

Ptolemy Philadelphus devoted his chief care to the im- 
provement of commerce. He constructed excellent harbors 
on the north and east of Egypt ; and, by means of a canal 
and the river Nile, opened an easy communication between 
the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. Thus he placed 
nearly all the trade of the east in the handsof his subjects, 
and rendered Alexandria the general emporium of the then 



B. C. 323-222. THE PTOLEMIES. 3O7 

known world. In consequence, that city rose, in a few years, 
to an astonishing degree of splendor and prosperity. It 
became also preeminent as a seat of learning. Its inhabi- 
tants consisted of three elements : the Egyptians ; the mer- 
cenaries in the kings service ; and the Alexa?id}'ians , a 
name given to strangers, mostly Greeks and Jews, who 
settled there. 

Ptolemy hi (b. c. 247-222) received from his grateful 
subjects the name of Evergetes, or the beneficent. He 
carried on a successful war against Syria, to avenge the 
death of his sister Berenice^, who had been cruelly murdered 
by her rival Laodice. On -his return from this triumphant 
expedition, Evergetes passed through Jerusalem, where he 
offered sacrifices to the true God in thanksgiving for his 
victories over the Syrians. He was the last prince of his 
dynasty that showed some moderation and virtue. 

The decline of Egypt dates from the reign- of his succes- 
sor, Ptolemy IV Philop&tor. In the reign of the sixth 
Ptolemy, we shall see the first instance of Roman interven- 
tion in that unhappy country. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Syria under the Seleucid^e, — b. c. 323-164. 

Seleucus (b. c. 322-280) surnamed Nicator (conqueror) 
the founder of the kingdom of Syria was a brave, active, and 
truly able sovereign. He pursued with great zeal the plan 
of Hellenizing the east, by founding Greek and Macedonian 
colonies in various parts of his dominions. Besides Antioch, 
his capital, he built many other considerable cities, such as 
Apamea, Laodicea, and Seleucia on the banks of the Tigris. 
The situation and magnificence of this last, by attracting the 
inhabitants of Babylon, greatly contributed to the utter 
decay of the once superb capital of the Chaldeans. 

Extinction of the Kingdom of Thrace (b. c. 
281). — Till the yearB. c. 281, Seleucus had ever been on 
terms of friendly alliance with Lysimachus, king of Thrace. 
But, when both were more than eighty years old, they 
became enemies. Seleucus invaded the districts belonging 



308 SYRIA. Chapt. XXVI. 

to his opponents in Asia Minor, and Lysimachus advanced 
to arrest his progress. A battle was fought at Corupedion, 
near Sardis, in which Lysimachus was defeated and 
slain. With him fell the kingdom of Thrace. From its 
Asiatic provinces there arose afterwards the petty states of 
Pergamus and Bithynia. Seleucus did not long enjoy the 
fruit of his victory. That monarch, who had never beheld 
his native land since he first joined the expedition of Alex- 
ander, now crossed the Hellespont to take possession of 
Macedonia. But, as he stopped to sacrifice at a celebrated 
altar near Lysimachia, in Thrace, Ptolemy Ceraunus, an 
Egyptian prince, whom he had kindly received at his court, 
assassinated him by stabbing him in the back. His 
Asiatic dominions fell to his son Antiochus. 

Antiochus i Soter (b. c. 280-360) was the fruit of one 
of those marriages which Alexander celebrated at Susa, 
between his generals and the princesses of Persia. His 
mother's name was Apama. His reign presents little that is 
remarkable beyond his wars with the Gauls, who had invaded 
Asia Minor. Over them he is said to have gained a great 
victory, and from this circumstance he derived his name 
of Soter. He was subsequently killed in a battle with the 
Gauls. 

Antiochus ii (b. c. 261-247) impiously surnamed Theos 
(god), had a most unprosperous reign. He is the prince 
mentioned in Daniel (xi ? 6), as the king of the north, who, 
on being defeated by the king of the south, Ptolemy, was 
compelled to marry Ptolemy's daughter, Berenice. On the 
death of Ptolemy, Antiochus recalled his former wife, 
Laodic6, who, remembering her insult, put him to death 
along with Berenice and her son. 

Rise of the Parthian Empire (b. c. 250). — It was 
during the reign of Antiochus Theos, that the Parthians, 
led by Arsaces, a man of obscure birth, but of great valor 
and ability, began to shake off the Syrian yoke, and laid 
the foundation of that empire which afterwards became so 
formidable, and for nearly three centuries (b. c. 34-A. D. 225) 
divided with Rome the sovereignty of the known earth. 
The example of insurrection set by the Parthians, was fol- 
lowed by other nations in their neighborhood, and the proud 
monarch of Syria lost all his provinces beyond the Tigris. 

Seleucus Callinicus (b. c. 245-226), and Seleucus 
Ceraunus (b. c. 226-223). — Seleucus Callinicus, the son 



B. C. 323-164. THE SELEUCID^E. ^OQ 

ofAntiochus Theos and Laodice, met with sad reverses at 
the hands not only of Ptolemy Evergetes, but also of the 
Parthians. He died a prisoner among the latter. The reign 
of his eldest son and successor, Seleucus Ceraunus, was 
undistinguished. But, under Antiochus in the Great, Syria 
partly regained its former power and prosperity. 

Antiochus hi (b. c. 223-189), surnamed the Great, was 
but fifteen years of age, when he succeeded his brother 
Ceraunus. His first war was against the Egyptian king 
Ptolemy IV Philop&tor, by whom he was entirely defeated 
(b. c. 217) at the great battle of Raphia. His losses on this 
occasion, however, were soon compensated by conquests in 
another direction. He stripped Arsaces of his late acquisi- 
tions, and forced him to be contented with the provinces of 
Parthia and Hyrcania. He also reestablished his authority 
in Bactria, and in various other countries east of the Tigris, 
which had some time before shaken off the Syrian yoke. 
During this expedition, which lasted seven years, he dis- 
played considerable vigor and activity. He returned to his 
capital covered with glory. 

About this time Ptolemy Philop&tor died, leaving for his 
successor a child only five years old, Ptolemy v Epiphanes. 
This gave Antiochus the opportunity of recovering Ccelosyria 
and Palestine. But his endeavor to reconquer the cities of 
Asia Minor which once belonged to the Syrian monarchy, 
was defeated by Roman intervention. He perished in an 
inglorious attempt to plunder the rich temple of Elymais, in 
Persia. 

Antiochus iv Epiphanes (b. c. 175-164). — As the Ro- 
mans had protected Asia Minor against the enterprises of 
Antiochus the Great, so they interposed against his second 
successor, Antiochus iv - Epiphanes, in favor of Egypt. 
Epiphanes had already made three successful campaigns 
against Philopator, and was about to complete the reduction 
of Egypt, when he was met, near Alexandria, by a Roman 
embassy bringing orders that.he should desist from further 
hostilities. To these summons, the king gave an evasive 
answer. Whereupon Popilius Lsenas, one of the ambas- 
sadors, drew a circle around the prince, on the sand, and 
commanded him to give his answer before crossing the line. 
The terrified monarch promised compliance, and withdrew 
into his dominions (b. c. 169). 



3io SYRIA AND JUDEA. Chapt. XXVII. 

CHAPTER XXVII. 

Jewish Independence. — b. c. 168-106. 

Persecution of the Jews (b. c. 168). — Enraged at 
seeing his prey snatched from his grasp, Antiochus dis- 
charged his anger on the Jews. Whilst on his return jour- 
ney from Egypt to Syria, he detached 22,000 men under 
Apollonius, whom he commanded to enter Jerusalem and 
give up the city to fire and sword. Apollonius took advan- 
tage of the Sabbath, during which the inhabitants were en- 
gaged in religious worship, to let loose his soldiers upon 
them. Multitudes were slaughtered. The temple and sanc- 
tuary were profaned, and a gentile garrison was stationed in 
the holy city. Then followed one of the severest persecu- 
tions recorded in history. An edict was published, enjoin- 
ing uniformity of worship throughout the king's dominion, 
and requiring the Jews to adore the false deities of the 
Greeks. The favorite test of uniformity was the eating of 
swine's flesh. The heroic endurance of the venerable Elea- 
zar, and of the widow and her seven sons,* makes this one 
of the brightest pages in the annals of Jewish or Christian 
martyrology. 

Revolt of Mathathias (b. c. 168). — Excepting a few 
striking cases of apostasy, the priests were steadfast; and the 
house of Levi not only quelled idolatry, but established the 
independence of Judea under the Maccabean, or Asmonean, 
princes.f At the beginning of the persecution, an aged 
priest named Mathathias withdrew from Jerusalem to his 
own city of Modin, with his five sons and other kindred. 
"When the king's officers came to Modin to enforce the edict, 
Mathathias slew both the first man that approached the 
heathen altar and the royal commissioner; a'nd, inviting all 
who were for the covenant to follow him, he fled with his 
sons to the mountains. Thence they issued forth, breaking 
down the heathen altars, and killing idol-worshippers. But 

* Commonly called the Maccabees. 

f Maccabee, . a hammer, was originally the surname of Judas, 
the third son of Mathathias. Asmonean, or rather Chasmonean, 
is the proper name of the family, from Chasmon, the great-grand- 
father of Mathathias. 



B. C. 168-I06. JEWISH INDEPENDENCE. 



311 



Mathathias died soon, and with his last breath bequeathed 
the command to his third son, Judas. 

Exploits of Judas Maccabeus (b. c. 167-161). — Of 
the^ achievements of this great martyr and patriot, our 
account must be brief. Five victories signalized the first 
year of his command, in which, defeating in turn the royal 
lieutenants — Lysias,Timotheus, and Bacchides — he destroyed 
their armies, acquired their treasures, and recovered many 
strongholds. The next year witnessed the delivery of Jeru- 
salem ; and the retreat of the enemy from Palestine, gave an 
interval of rest for purifying the temple. The memory of 
this new consecration was perpetuated by the feast of Dedi- 
cation, which St. John (x) speaks of as kept in the winter. 

Death of Antiochus iv Epiphanes (b. c. 164). — 
Meanwhile Antiochus went through the upper provinces of 
his kingdom, to levy large tributes. Imitating his father, 
he attempted to rifle the rich temple of Elymais ; but, like 
him, he met with a shameful repulse. His mortification was 
here increased by the news of the defeat of his armies in 
Judea ; and he therefore began to retrace his steps with all 
possible speed, that -he might the sooner make Jerusalem the 
sepulchre of its inhabitants. But he was himself about to 
become the victim of a more powerful avenger. Whilst 
venting his blasphemous rage, he was seized with excrucia- 
ting pains. His flesh fell from his bones, or was eaten by 
worms ; and he died a prey to agonizing tortures. 

Fresh Victories of Judas Maccabeus (b. c. 164-161). 
— The death of Antiochus Epiphanes delivered the Jews 
from a cruel foe, but not from all their enemies. Lysias 
again invaded Judea, but met with such determined resis- 
tance as compelled him to withdraw. He soon, however, 
reappeared, accompanied by the young king Antiochus 
EupStor, son of Epiphanes". Jerusalem was closely be- 
sieged, and was in great danger of being taken, when afflict- 
ing news recalled the king and his lieutenant into Syria. 

Judas used this second interval of rest to chastise the 
Ammonites, the Idumeans, and other neighboring tribes, 
that were continually harassing the people of God. One of 
his most astonishing campaigns was that against a general 
called Timotheus, who had gathered an army of more than 
i2o,oco. Judas with only 6,000 attacked him, put 30,000 
of his troops to the sword, scattered the rest, and, returning 
without loss of time, stormed the two strong cities of Car- 



3 i2 SYRIA AND JUDEA. Chapt. XXVII. 

nion and Ephron, where an additional force of 50,000 
enemies was destroyed. 

Death of Judas Maccabeus (b. c. 161). — Meanwhile 
a revolution had deprived Eup^tor of his crown and life, and 
placed on the throne his cousin Demetrius 1 Soter. This 
prince followed the subtler policy of attacking the Jews 
through their own divisions. Hellenism once more lifted its 
head under a usurping high-priest. Jealousies sprang up 
among the Assidseans (zealots) against the Maccabees. 
Judas, however, was still able both to arrest the progress of 
Bacchides, governor of Mesopotamia, and utterly to defeat 
a very large force which Nicanor brought to the assistance 
of the apostate high-priest, Joachim, or Alcimus. But, 
when Bacchides returned with a fresh Syrian army of 22,000 
foot and 2,000 horse, the Jewish hero could rally around him 
only Soo men. "If our time be come, let us die manfully 
with our brethren, and let us not stain our honor," said Judas 
before his last fight. Victorious over the wing opposed to 
him, he was overwhelmed by the numbers that assailed his 
rear, and his death dispersed his followers. He was buried 
at Modin, amidst the lamentations of the people, crying, 
" How is the valiant man fallen, who delivered Israel!" 

Jonathan (b. c. 153-143). — While the Syrian general 
Bacchides and the intruder Alcimus were hunting down the 
patriots; Jonathan, the youngest of the Maccabean brethren, 
held out in the wilderness, until he grew strong enough to 
assume the offensive. In B. c. 153, he was installed in the 
high-priesthood, at the feast of the Tabernacles, thus begin- 
ning the line of Asmonean priest-princes. Ten years later, 
he was treacherously put to death by Tryphon, a usurper of 
the Syrian crown. 

Simon (b. c. 143-135). — At last, the internal disorders of 
Syria enabled Simon, the second, and the last survivor^ of 
the sons of Mathathias, to secure the recognition of Jewish 
independence by king Demetrius Nicator, b. c. 142. Simon 
was made hereditary high-priest. Under him, Judea enjoyed 
all the blessings of profound peace, "and the earth yielded 
her increase, and the trees of the field their fruit. The 
ancient men sat in the streets, communing together of good 
things ; and the young men put on glorious and warlike 
apparel. And every man sat under his vine, and under his 
fig-tree; and there was none to make him afraid." Simon's 
internal government was just and firm ; abroad, he opened 



B. C. I6S-I08. JEWISH INDEPENDENCE. <5j-> 

up a commerce with Europe through the port of Joppe, and 
renewed the treaties which Judas and Jonathan had made 
with Rome and Lacedaemon. The letters in favor of the 
Jews addressed by the Roman senate to the states and 
islands of Greece and Asia Minor, and to the great poten- 
tates of Asia, including even the Parthian Arsaces, are a 
striking evidence of the diffusion of the Jewish race. 

John Hyrcanus (b. c. 135-106).— Simon was treacher- 
ously murdered with his eldest and third sons by his own 
son-in-law Ptolemy, a creature of the Syrians. This man 
called in the enemies of his country. Jerusalem was forced 
to capitulate, and Judea became once more tributary (b. c. 
133). But the death of Antiochus Vii Sidetes, in Parthia, 
enabled John, the second son and successor of Simon, to 
cast off the yoke ; and the restored king, Demetrius Nicator, 
finally confirmed his former grant of Jewish independence 
(b. c. 123). The state acquired its full extent by the con- 
quest of the land beyond the Jordan, and of the old foes in 
Idumea and Samaria. From this time, the kingdom of 
Judea comprised Judea proper in the south, Samaria in the 
centre, Galilee in the north, and Percea beyond the Jordan. 

John built at Jerusalem the tower of Baris, which after- 
wards became famous under the name of Antonia. But the 
close of his government saw the rupture of the religious 
unity of the nation, by the rise of the opposing sects of the 
Pharisees and Sadducees. A personal quarrel with the for- 
mer led John to join the latter sect. His death marks the 
transition from the theocratic commonwealth, under the 
Maccabean leaders, to the Asmonean kingdom of his suc- 
cessors. John had called himself Pri?ice of Israel. His 
son Judas exchanged his Jewish for the Greek name 
Aristobulus ; and, under him, the state began to be called by 
the Grecian and Roman appellation of Judea. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Macedonia and Greece. — b. c. 301-183. 

Revolutions in Macedonia (b. c. 301-280). — The bat- 
tle of Ipsus had secured to Cassander the peaceful possession of 
his kingdom of Macedon. He was succeeded on the throne 

27 



3 i4 MACEDONIA AND dREfiCE". "Ch apt. XXVIII. 

(b. c. 296) by his eldest son Philip iv.* But that young 
prince died in 295, when his two brothers began an unnatural 
struggle about the succession. Then Demetrius Poliorcetes, 
turning their dissensions to his own advantage, made him- 
self master of Macedonia and the greater part of Greece 
(b. C. 294). Not content with this return of good fortune, 
Poliorcetes aimed at recovering the whole of his father's 
dominions in Asia. But, before he was ready to take the 
field, his adversaries were upon him. In the spring of B. c, 
287, Ptolemy sent a powerful fleet against Greece, while the 
famous Pyrrhus, king of Eplrus, on the one side, and LysimS- 
chus, on the other, simultaneously invaded Macedonia. 
Demetrius was compelled to flee. Pyrrhus now ascended 
the throne, but his reign in Macedonia was of brief duration. 
At the end of seven months, he was in turn driven out by 
Lysimachus, who retained possession of the country until 
his fall and death, at the battle of Corupedion. 

Invasion of the Celts (b. c. 280-279. — Ptolemy Ce- 
raunus was the next occupant of the Macedonian throne, 
which he purchased by his treacherous assassination of Se- 
leucus, in B. C. 280. This base and cowardly act met with 
speedy retribution. In the very same year, the kingdom of 
Macedonia and Thrace was invaded by an immense host of 
Celts, and Ptolemy fell at the head of the forces which he 
led against them. From Macedonia, numerous bands of the 
Celtic invaders, under Brennus, burst upon Thessaly and 
Greece. The idea of the chieftain was to strike a blow 
which would both enrich his followers and stun the Greeks. 
He meant to plunder the temple at Delphi, the most ven- 
erated place in all Greece, where he supposed an enormous 
treasure was deposited. At the approach of the invaders, 
Greece was terror-struck. The nations of Peloponnesus 
closed the isthmus of Corinth by a wall. North of the 
isthmus, the Boeotians, Phocidians, Locrians, Megarians, and 
^tolians, formed a coalition under the leadership of Athens, 
and an army was stationed at Thermopylae to stop the barba- 
rians. But, just as in the case of the Persians, traitors guided 
Brennus across the mountain paths. The Greeks, seeing 
their position turned, withdrew on board Athenian galleys ; 
and, by evening of the same day, the invaders appeared 
in sight of Delphi. Instead of rushing at once to the assault, 

*Philip Arrhidaeus is called Philip in. 



B. C. 251-183. THE ACHiEAN LEAGUE. 315 

the Gauls fell out to plunder. The night was spent in 
tumultuous merriment and orgies. Meanwhile, there assem- 
bled within Delphi iooo Greek warriors, who, on the 
next day, gave a warm reception to the besiegers. Repulsed 
with great loss, the Gauls returned, flying and fighting, to 
the place where they had left their comrades, on the frontiers 
of Macedonia. Some established themselves near the Dan- 
ube ; others settled on the sea-coast of Thrace ; whilst the 
rest passing over into Asia, gave their name to the country 
called Galatia. 

Antigonus - Gonatas (b. c. 277-239). — After the death 
of Ptolemy Ceraunus, the Macedonian crown was disputed 
by several potentates. At length, Antigonus Gonatas, son 
of Demetrius Poliorcetes, succeeded in establishing himself 
on the throne ; and, with the exception of two or three 
years (B. c. 276-272), during which he was temporarily ex- 
pelled by Pyrrhus, he continued in possession of it till his 
death (b. c. 239). He also made himself master of the 
greater part of Greece, He transmitted the crown to his 
son Demetrius II, and his posterity retained it whilst Mace- 
donia continued an independent kingdom. 

The Achaean League. — Achaia is a narrow strip of coun- 
try upon the shores of the Corinthian gulf in Peloponnesus. 
From a very early period, there had existed a league, chiefly 
for religious purposes among the twelve principal towns of 
the province. This league, however, had never possessed 
much political importance; and, of late, it had even been 
suppressed by the Macedonians, who controlled all its cities, 
either by their own garrisons or by tyrants subservient to 
their interests. But it was this very oppression that led to 
the revival of the league. The Achaean towns began grad- 
ually to coalesce again. Finally, in the year 251 B. c, Aratus, 
of Sicyon, one of the most remarkable characters of this 
period, brought it into active political prominence. 

Aratus. — Aratus, having freed his native city, which had 
long groaned under the dominion of tyrants, induced his 
countrymen to join the Achaean league. The importance 
of this accession, and the influence of so able a man as 
Aratus, were soon felt. In B. c. 243, when strategus of the 
league for the second time, Aratus wrested Corinth from the 
Macedonians, and united it to the confederation. From that 
moment, the league spread with wonderful rapidity. It was 
soon joined by Traezen, Epidaurus, Hermione, and other 



3 i6 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXVIII. 

cities ; and it ultimately embraced Athens, Me^ara, Salamis, 
and the whole of Peloponnesus, with the exception of Sparta, 
Elis, and some of the Arcadian towns. 

Constitution of the League. — The league was gov- 
erned by a strategics, or general, whose functions were both 
military and civil ; a grammateus or secretary ; and a 
council of ten demiurgi. The sovereignty, however, re- 
sided in the general assembly, which met twice a year in a 
sacred grove, near .^Egium, and was composed of all the 
citizens who had attained the age of thirty. In this assem- 
bly, the officers of the league were elected, and all general 
questions of war, peace, foreign alliances, and the like, were 
decided. 

Agis IV (b. c. 244-240), king of Sparta, during his short 
reign attempted to revive the ancient glory of his country, by 
restoring the institutions of Lycurgus. A preparatory step 
needed to attain this object, was to cancel all debts, and to 
make a new distribution of lands. Agis was the first to re- 
linquish his property and that of his family ; but, failing to 
induce the mass of the wealthy to follow his example, he was 
put to death as a traitor to his order. 

Cleomenes Attacks the Achaean League (b. c. 225- 
221). — -Cleomenes, however, a few years later, effected this 
reform. Theresultof his measures was soon visible. With the 
return of Spartan courage, there sprung up a correspond- 
ing revival of ambition and desire of preeminence. Cleo- 
menes offered to join Sparta to the Achaean league, but on 
condition of being made its strategus. The proposal being 
rejected, a war ensued, which proved equally fatal to both 
parties. 

Battle of Sellasia (b. c. 221). — Hard pressed by 
Cleomenes, the Achaeans found themselves compelled to 
appeal for aid to Macedonia. King Antigonus Doson readily 
espoused their cause. In the battle of Sellasia (b. c. 221), 
the army of Cleomenes was almost totally annihilated. He 
himself was obliged to flee to Egypt, and Sparta was taken. 
But the Achaeans paid dearly for the aid thus obtained : they 
fell anew into a sort of subjection to Macedonia. 

The ^Etolians, a species of freebooters, had long been 
united in a confederation, not of cities, but of tribes. The 
council of the league, called the pancztolicum, assembled 
every autumn to elect the strategus and other officers. But 
the details of government were entrusted to a permanent 



B. C 25I-183. THE ACH^AN LEAGUE. 317 

committee, whose members were called apoclctu Availing 
themselves of the disorganized state of Greece consequent 
upon Alexander's death, the ^tolians had gradually made 
themselves masters of Locris, Phocis, Bceotia, together with 
portions of Acarnania, Thessaly, and Epirus. Thus both 
the Amphictyonic Council and the oracle of Delphi, were 
in their power. It was not long before they came into col- 
lision with the Achaean league. 

War between the ^Etolian and the Achaean 
League. — The superior power of the ^Etolians, and their 
frequent incursions into the territory of the Achaean league, 
forced the latter to implore the assistance of the young king 
of Macedonia, Philip v. This monarch, equally ambitious 
and enterprising, was possessed of considerable military 
ability and much political sagacity. He afforded some as- 
sistance to the Achaeans in the years 220-217. But his 
chief attention was directed to the great struggle now going 
on in the west, between Rome and Carthage; and the 
southern league, thus thrown almost entirely upon its 
own resources, continued to be hard pressed by the stronger 
confederacy of the north, until the appointment of the last 
of the Greeks, Philopcemen, as strategus (b. c. 208). 

Philopgemen (b. c. 253-183) was a native of Megalopolis, 
in Arcadia. From his youth, he inured himself to a hard 
and active life, chiefly applying to such exercises as might 
render him an excellent warrior. Being equally well quali- 
fied to fight and to command, he yielded to no soldier in 
vigor and courage, nor to any officer in prudence and ability. 
At the age of thirty, he signalized himself in the battle of 
Sellasia ; and to him, more than to any other, was Antig- 
onus indebted for his victory. The king acknowledged this 
after the battle, in a manner very flattering to Philopcemen. 
Feigning to be angry, because the cavalry had charged be- 
fore the signal was given, and being answered by the com- 
mander of that body that the fault was to be laid entirely to 
the account of a young Megalopolitan officer, the king re- 
plied : " This young man, by seizing the proper moment for 
action, has performed the part of the general ; and you, the 
general, have acted the part of a young man." 

Battle of Mantinea (b. c. 207). — Philopcemen intro- 
duced considerable improvements in the arms, discipline, 
and tactics of the Achaeans. His reforms, combined with 
the public spirit which he fostered among the confederates, 



31 8 MACEDONIA AND GREECE. Chapt. XXVIII. 

were attended with the most beneficial results. When Ma- 
chanidas, the tyrant of Sparta, who aspired to extend his 
sovereignty over the whole of Peloponnesus, advanced to 
Mantinea, in b. c. 207, Philopcemen met him at the head of 
the Achsean forces. A decisive battle ensued, the success 
of which Was chiefly due to the superior talents of the con- 
federate general. Nor were the Achaeans ungrateful towards 
him who had saved them from the yoke of the Spartan 
despots. The same honor that was paid to Themistocles 
after the battle of Salamis, was also paid to Philopcemen. 
In the next Nemean festival, when the musician sung this 
verse of an ancient poet : 

" The palm of liberty for Greece I won,'* 

the spectators, struck at the coincidence, rose, and, turning to 
their favorite strategus, hailed him with loudest plaudits. 
They recollected the ancient dignity of Greece ; and, in their 
present joy, were filled with the noble spirit of former times-. 

Sparta Joins the Achaean League (b. c. 191). — Philo- 
pcemen found other opportunities of distinguishing himself. At 
Sparta, Nabis had succeeded Machanidas, whom he re- 
sembled both in his cruelty towards the Lacedaemonians 
and in his enmity towards the Achaeans. His operations 
against the latter were at first successful. But, subseq"ently, 
he was signally defeated by Philopcemen ; and, destitute of 
troops and resources, returned to Sparta, where he was 
murdered. Thereupon, Philopcemen marched wfth his 
victorious army to Lacedaemon. He found everything there 
in confusion. But, assembling the citizens, he so dexter- 
ously influenced them by motives of fear and interest, that 
he persuaded them to join the Achaean league. 

Disinterestedness of Philopcemen. — The Lacedaemo- 
nians, out of gratitude, resolved to make him a donation of 
the whole sum accruing from the sale of Nabis's property. 
But so well known was the integrity of the patriot, that no 
Spartan could be induced to be the bearer of the present. It 
became necessary to intrust it to one Timolaus, a stranger, 
to whom Philopcqmen was bound by the rights of hospitality. 
He, therefore, went to Megalopolis, where he lodged at Philo- 
pcemen's. But, observing this great man's simplicity of 
manners, gravity of discourse, and nobleness of sentiments, 
he durst not even allude to the object of his journey, and re- 



B. C. 251-1S3. THE ACH^AN LEAGUE. 319 

turned to Lacedsemon. Nor was he more successful in a 
second visit. Being sent a third time, he ventured to de- 
liver his commission. Philopcemen listened with attention; 
then immediately set out for Sparta, where he exhorted the 
people not to bribe the virtuous, who were already their, 
friends, but rather to employ their gold in winning over and 
silencing those who divided the city by seditious discourses. 
The subsequent history of the Achaean and u^Etolian 
Leagues, as also of the Macedonians, is interwoven with that of 
Rome. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 

Last Period of Grecian Art. 



Sculpture. — After the close of the Peloponnesian war, 
sculpture continued to nourish. But, instead of Jupiter, 
Juno, and Minerva — the favorite gods of the earlier artists, 
the sculptors of this period chose in preference subjects 
affording room for the exhibition of more violent feelings, 
such as Bacchus, Venus, and Cupid. The magnificent gold- 
and-ivory statues almost wholly disappeared, marble or 
bronze being used instead; and the serene majesty of the 
older works gave place to a softer and more flowing execution. 

Scopas, Praxiteles, and Lysippus, were the most cele- 
brated masters of this period. The chief works of Scopas 
were a group representing Achilles conducted by the 
marine deities to the island of Leuce ; the group of Niobe 
and her children, a copy of which is preserved in the 
museum at Florence ; and the statue of the Pythian Apollo 
playing on the lyre. 

The most famous work of Praxiteles was the Venus which he 
made for the Cnidians. Though it expressed only sensual 
charms, and was avowedly modeled from the courtezan 
Phryn6, yet such was its excellence, that many travelled to 
Cnidus on purpose to behold it ; and so highly did the Cni- 
dians prize it, that no offer could ever induce them to sell it. 
Here, for the first time, was the goddess Venus represented 
as nude. 



320 



GREECE. Chapt. XXIX, 



Lysippus of Sicyon, who flourished during the reign of 
Alexander the Great, worked principally in bronze. Her- 
cules was a favorite subject with him; and the celebrated 
Farnese Hercules, in the museum at Naples, is probably a 
copy of one of his works. His most renowned statue of 
Alexander, who forbade anybody but Lysippus and Apelles ■ 
t o represent him, was that which exhibited the hero bran- 
dishing a lance. It was regarded as a companion to 
the picture of Apelles, in which Alexander wielded a 
thunderbolt. 

Painting. — The most famous painter of this period, 
nay, of all antiquity, was Apelles. The great part of his life 
seems to have been spent at the Macedonian court. He was 
warmly patronized by Alexander, who granted him the 
exclusive privilege of painting his portraits. After the death 
of that monarch, whom he had accompanied on his eastern 
expedition, Apelles withdrew to the courts of king Ptolemy. 
Of his modesty many pleasant anecdotes are related. He 
was not ashamed to learn from the humblest critics. With 
this view he was accustomed to exhibit his unfinished pictures 
before his house, and to conceal himself behind them, in 
order to hear the criticisms of the passers-by. Once a cob- 
bler detected a fault in the shoes of one of his figures, which 
Apelles corrected. The next day he passed^ the cobbler, 
encouraged by the success of his first criticism, began to 
remark upon the leg. This, however, Apelles could not 
endure ; and, coming forward, he bade the cobbler to keep 
to his shoes — whence came the proverb : "Ne sutor ultra 
crepidam — Let the cobbler stick to his last." The most 
admired of all his paintings was a Venus rising from the sea, 
and represented as wringing her hair, whilst the falling drops 
formed a veil around her. Augustus placed it in the tem- 
ple which he dedicated to Julius Csesar, at Rome. 

Later Schools of Art. — After the age of Alexander, 
Greek art began visibly to decline. Many works of great 
excellence, however, still continued to be produced. Rhodes 
especially remained an eminent school of art, almost down 
to the Christian era. Pergamus also and Ephesus possessed, 
at this time, artists of merit. To this period belong the 
dying gladiators of the Louvre, and of the Capitoline 
museum, the 'Venus de Medici' at. Florence, the famous 
group of the Laocoon in the Vatican, and that called the 
Farnesian bull, in the museum at Naples, which represents 



B. C. 40O-IOO. GRECIAN ART. 32 1 

Zethus and Amphion binding Dirce to a wild bull, in order 
to avenge their mother. 

Architecture. — The architecture of this period was 
marked rather by the laying out of cities in a nobler and 
more convenient fashion, and by the increase of splendor in 
private residences, than by any improvement in the style of 
public buildings and temples. Of the many cities to which 
the conquests of Alexander gave rise, the chief were Alex- 
andria and Antioch. The regularity of its plan, the colossal 
size of its public edifices, and the beauty and solidity of 
its private houses, rendered Alexandria a sort of model city ; 
yet it was surpassed by Antioch, which rose a few years 
later. 

Plunder of Greek Works of Art by the Romans. 
■ — When Greece began to fall into the hands of the Romans, 
the treasures of Greek art were conveyed by degrees to 
Rome, where ultimately a new school arose. Nero is said 
to have carried off 500 statutes from Delphi alone, merely 
to adorn his ' golden house.' But so prodigious was the 
number of works of art in Greece, that, even in the second 
century of the Christian era, when Pausanias visited it, its 
temples and other public buildings were still crowded with 
statues and paintings. 



CHAPTER XXX. 

The New Comedy — Athenian Oratory and Philosophy. 

The New Comedy: Menander (34.2-290). — ^Eschy- 
lus, Sophocles, and Euripides, were followed by no tragic 
writer of equal merit. With regard to comedy the case was 
different. Aristophanes had a successor — Menander, whose 
genius gave to that species of composition the very form it 
has ever since retained, and which the Athenians called the 
new comedy. It sprung up among them after they became 
subject to the Macedonians. Politics were excluded from 
it, and its materials were drawn exclusively from the fictitious 
adventures of persons in private life. Philemon, who was 
distinguished for broad humor, and was very popular among 
the Athenian public, is regarded as the founder of the new 



$12 



GREECE. Chapt. XXX. 



comedy. But its glory was Menander, whom ancient critics 
unanimously considered one of the most elegant writers of 
antiquity. The number of his fragments, collected from the 
writings of various authors, show how extensively he was 
read. But, unfortunately, none are of sufficient length to 
convey to us an adequate idea of his style and genius. 

Athenian Oratory. — The latter days of literary Athens, 
were chiefly distinguished by the genius of her orators and 
philosophers. The democratical nature of her institutions, 
made the possession of oratorical skill eminently valuable. By 
prerogative of birth, the Athenian citizen was both a states- 
man and a judge ; he was daily called upon either to pro- 
nounce on questions of domestic and foreign policy, or to 
give his decision in courts of justice, which, in num- 
ber, hardly differed from public assemblies. Judicial orators, 
too, usually drew their topics less from the law, or the case 
under consideration, than from extraneous circumstances, and 
were thus enabled to marshal, in favor of a client or against 
an adversary, all the combined resources of judicial, deliber- 
ative, and demonstrative oratory. Add to this the natural 
temperament of the Athenians, which rendered them highly 
susceptible of the charms of eloquence. From all these 
causes much attention came to be given to oratory, at Athens. 
When Gorgias appeared there as ambassador from Leon- 
tini in E. c. 427, the Athenians retained him in their city for 
the purpose of profiting by his instruction, and he was hon- 
ored with a golden statue at Delphi. 

Attic Orators. — Between 490 and 310 b. c. flourished 
at Athens those speakers, who have been called by way of 
eminence the Attic orators. The earliest of them was 
Antiphon (b. c. 480-41 1). Thucydides was one of his pupils, 
and owed much to his lessons. The best known among the 
other Attic orators, were Lysias, Isocrates, Isseus, ^Eschines, 
and Demosthenes. The style of Lysias is regarded as a 
model of the Attic idiom, and his orations are characterized 
by gracefulness, combined with energy and power. They 
were written for others to deliver, because, being a resident 
alien, he could himself take no part in the assemblies nor 
speak in the courts of justice. Isocrates took great pains 
with his compositions, and is reported to have spent ten, or 
perhaps fifteen years, over his panegyric oration. His style 
is pure and elegant, but wanting in simplicity and^ vigor. 
Prevented by his weakly constitution and natural timidity 



B. C. 490-270. ORATORS AND PHILOSOPHERS. 323 

from taking a part in public affairs, he remained all his life 
a speech writer and professor of rhetoric. Isaeus, who also 
opened a school of rhetoric at Athens, numbered Demos- 
thenes among his pupils. His orations were exclusively 
judicial. 

iEschines (b. c. 389-324) was successively a gymnastic 
teacher, a scribe, an actor, and a public speaker. As a poli- 
tician, he was first an opponent of Philip. But bribes 
judiciously administered by this prince, made him espouse 
the cause of Macedonia. Henceforth, he was the constant 
advocate of peace. He and Demosthenes were the leading 
speakers of the opposing parties, and the heat of political 
animosity soon degenerated into personal hatred. In B. c. 
330, ^Eschines tried to ruin his rival by a charge nominally 
directed against Ctesiphon, but in reality aimed at Demos- 
thenes. The latter triumphantly replied in his speech On 
the C?'own. ^schines, not having obtained a fifth part of 
the votes, became himself liable to a penalty. Chagrined at 
his defeat, he withdrew to Ionia and Caria, where he spent 
several years in teaching rhetoric. After the death of 
Alexander, returning to Rhodes, he established there a school 
of eloquence, which afterwards became very celebrated. As 
an orator, he was second only to Demosthenes, of whom an 
account has been previously given. 

The Academicians: Plato (b. c. 429-347). — Of all the 
disciples of Socrates, Plato was by far the most distinguished. 
Descended of a noble family, he was instructed in music, 
grammar, and gymnastics, by the most celebrated masters of 
the time. At twenty, his attention was turned to philosophy 
by the teaching of Socrates ; and, till the death of the latter, 
he lived in the closest intimacy with him. For some twelve 
years after this event, he absented himself from Athens, 
visiting Cyrene, Egypt, Sicily, and Magna Grsecia. On his 
return, he began to teach in the gymnasium of the Academy, 
and also in his garden at Colonus. His instructions were 
gratuitous ; and his method, like that of Socrates, seems to 
have been by interrogation and dialogue. His doctrines, 
however, were too recondite for the popular ear, and his 
lectures were not numerously attended. But he had a 
narrow circle of devoted admirers and disciples, who met in 
his house, over the vestibule of which was inscribed, " Let 
no one enter, who is ignorant of geometry." The fundamen- 
tal principle of his philosophy is the belief in an eternal and 



324 



GREECE. Chapt. XXX 



self-existent cause, the origin of all things. This, and his 
next great tenet, the belief in the immortality of the soul, 
naturally led him to establish a lofty standard of moral 
excellence. Like Socrates, he constantly inculcated temper- 
ance, justice, and purity of life. In politics, his views were 
much less satisfactory. — As Plato delivered his lectures in the 
Academy, his disciples received the name of Academicians. 

The Peripatetics: Aristotle (b. c. 384-322). — Among 
the select pupils of Plato, was a native of Staglrus, Aristotle, 
who, from the place of his birth, is also known as the Sta- 
girite. Plato considered him his best scholar, and called him 
the intellect of his school. Becoming a teacher in turn, Aris- 
totle accepted Philip's invitation to undertake the educa- 
tion of the youthful Alexander. At the request of the 
philosopher, Philip rebuilt the city of Staglrus, which had 
been destroyed during the Olynthian war ; and it was here 
that Aristotle imparted his instruction to Alexander, as well 
as to several other noble youths (b. c. 342-338). In B. c. 335, 
Aristotle again took up his abode at Athens, and taught in 
the gymnasium called the Lyceum. From his habit of de- 
livering, his lectures, whilst walking up and down in the 
shady walks or porticoes of this place, his school acquired 
the mane of the peripatetic. For thirteen years he con- 
tinued to preside over the Lyceum ; and, during that period, 
composed the greater portion of those voluminous works 
which stamp him as one of the very first princes of the hu- 
man intellect. His philosophy was founded on a close ob- 
servation of human nature ; and he may be regarded as the 
founder and perfecter of logic as an art. In person, Aristotle 
was short and slender, with small eyes, and something of a 
lisp. His manners were characterized by briskness and 
vivacity, and he paid considerable attention to his dress and 
outward demeanor. 

The Stoics * : Zeno, the founder of the school of the 
Stoics, flourished in the early part of the third century B. c. 
A native of Citium, in Cyprus, he settled at Athens about 
B. c. 299 ; and, after a long course of study, opened a school 
of his own in the Pcecile Stoa, whence came the name of his 
sect. His tenets were chiefly practical. He inculcated tem- 
perance and self-denial, maintaining that men should give 

* So called from the Stoa, or porch, where the founder of the 
sect was accustomed to teach. 



B. C. 429-100. PHILOSOPHERS. 



325 



their undivided esteem to virtue. The school, notwithstand- 
ing its errors, produced great characters, such as Panaetius, 
Cato Uticensis, Epictetus, Marcus Aurelius, and others. 
Zeno himself was held in such esteem at Athens, that the 
people honored him with a gold crown and a public burial. 
His own countrymen erected a monumental pillar to his 
honor. 

The Epicureans, so named from their master Epicurus 
(b. c. 342-270), formed a less reputable school than the 
Stoic. Epicurus was a native of Samos. He settled at 
Athens, when about 35 years of age ; and, without having 
previously gone through a regular course of study, set him- 
self up as a teacher of philosophy. His great principle was, 
that pleasure is the highest good. This tenet, however, he 
explained by pointing to mental pleasure as the highest. 
But, as he denied the immortality of the soul, and the inter- 
ference of the gods in human affairs, his doctrines were soon 
made a pretext for sensual gratification by those who had 
not sufficient elevation of mind to love virtue for its own 
sake. Hence the ill fame which has attached to his school 

'Epicuri de grege porcus.* 

The Alexandrian School. — After the downfall of 
Athens, Alexandria became, under the fostering care of the 
Ptolemies, the chief seat of Grecian literature and learning. 
Theocritus, the inventor of pastoral poetry, lived there some 
time. There also flourished Callimachus, the author of 
hymns and elegies, the epic poet Apollonius Rhodius, and 
Aratus. But it was chiefly for its school of grammar and 
criticism, as also of pure science and medicine, that Alex- 
andria became famous. Chief among the great names of 
the Alexandrian school, are those of the critic Aristarchus, 
the physician Galen, and the mathematicians Archimedes 
and Euclid. The reputation of Alexandria, as a seat of 
learning, continued far down into Christian times. Six 
hundred years after its foundation by the first Ptolemy, the 
Museum, or Alexandrian College, was still described by 
Ammianus as ' the last abode of distinguished men.' From 
this school proceeded the great Christian writers and doctors, 
Clement, Origen, Anatolius, and Athanasius. 



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PART VIII. 



HISTORY OF ANCIENT ROME. 

CHAPTER I. 

The Monarchy — b. c. 753-509. 

Inhabitants of Italy. — The two principal races found 
in Italy, at the time of the building of Rome, were the 
Etruscans and the Italians proper. The Etruscans were 
the most powerful nation of the north, and completely dif- 
fered both in language and in manners from all the other in- 
habitants of the peninsula. They are believed to have de- 
scended into Italy from the Rhaetian Alps, and were prob- 
ably remnants of the primitive Turanian population, which 
overspread the whole of Europe previous to the great Aryan 
wave of migration. They were the best architects in the 
peninsula, and the only people of Italy that showed a marked 
inclination to maritime pursuits. In the 8th century b. c, 
the Etruscan race was spread from the foot of the Alps to 
the Tiber. 

The Italians proper occupied nearly the whole of Central 
Italy. They comprised two branch stocks — the Latins and 
the Umbro-Sabellians. The Latins dwelt south of the Tiber 
and north of Campania. At the time of the building of 
Rome, they formed a confederation of thirty towns, of which 
Alba Longa (the long white city) was the metropolis. The 
Umbro-Sabellians included the Umbrians, Sabines, Sam- 
nites, and their numerous colonies. Their territory lay to 
the east of Etruria and Latium. 

The Population of Rome. — Rome, situated on the 
left, or south bank of the Tiber, and about 15 miles from its 
mouth, lay upon the borders of three of the most powerful 

327 



328 



ANCIENT ROME. 



Chapt. I. 



races in Italy, the Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. _ Though 
originally a Latin town, it received at an early period a con- 
siderable Sabine, and also an Etruscan population. Three 
distinct elements, therefore, united to form the nucleus of the 
Roman people. Of these, the Etruscan was the smallest) 
and the Latin the largest. 




TIBUR 



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oTUSCULUM 



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AL0AMUI*' 



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The Pomptine Marshes 



The Early Roman History Unreliable. — The his- 
tory, as given by Roman writers, not only of the seven 
kings, but of the earlier republican period, is destitute of an 
authentic basis ;* and, though it has preserved many facts 
which did actually occur, is unquestionably legendary, both 
in its main features and in its details. Yet, since those early 
traditions, with their marvellous talesf and poetical embel- 
lishments, were accepted by the Romans as facts, and being 
thus received, shaped their thought and became woven into 

* Until the war with Pyrrhus, where we have, in Polybius, a 
trustworthy narrative. Hence the history of the first four centu- 
ries of Rome, must not be received as a statement of undoubted 
facts. 

f The many supernatural incidents scattered through the early 
history of Pagan Rome, are of course unhistorical. 



B. C, 753"5°9- THE MONARCHY. * gQ 

their whole literature, tliey must find their place in the his- 
tory of Rome. 

./Eneas and Ascanius. — When, niter the fall of Troy, 
^Eneas went in search of anew home, carrying with him his son 

Ascanius, his gods, and the Palladium.- he at last found 
a refuge on the coast of Latium. Here he was kindly received 
by king Latinus, married this prince's daughter. Lavinia, and 
in her honor called the town where he settled with his followers, 
Lavmium. Thirty years later, his son Ascanius founded a 
second city, Alba Longa. on a ridge beneath the Alban 
Mount, about 15 miles from the spot where Rome subse- 
quently arose. Alba soon became the most powerful town 
of Latium. and the head of a confederacy of Latin cities. 

Birth of Romulus and Remus! — Twelve kings of 
the family of .Tineas succeeded Ascanius at Alba. The last 
of these. Procas, left two sons. Numitor and Amulius. 
Amulius, the younger, seized the throne, and reduced his 
brother to the condition of a private citizen. He even put 
to death the only son of Numitor, and made his daughter Rhea 
Silvia one of the Vestal virgins, who were compelled to live 
and die unmarried. But the maiden yielded to Mars, and 
brought forth twins — Romulus and Remus. These their 
cruel uncle ordered to be drowned in the Tiber. But the 
helpless babes were wafted by the overflowing water to the 
loot of the Palatine, where a she-wolf gave them suck till 
they were rescued by Faustulus, the keeper of the royal 
sheepfold. This man acquainted them, when they grew up. 
with the secret of their birth. Thereupon they assembled a 
band of valiant shepherds, and, adding to these a body of 
their grandfather's adherents, slew the usurper, and replaced 
Numitor on the Alban throne. 

Foundation of Rome (b. c. 755). — Romulus and Re- 
mus, wishing to found a city on the spot where they had 
been rescued from death. Numitor granted them the whole 
tract from the Tiber to the sixth milestone on the road to 
Alba. But a dispute arose between the brothers, as to the 
exact location and name of the new city. Romulus preferred 
the Palatine, Remus the Aventine. Appeal was made to the 
decision of augury. Remus saw six vultures, Romulus 

*A statue of Pallas, or Minerva, said to have fallen from 

heaven, and with the preservation of which the safety of Rome 
was subsequently thought to be connected. 



330 ANCIENT ROME Chapt. I. 

twelve. The shepherds, therefore, decided for the latter, 
who commenced the building of a wall. Ere it had reached 
a man's height, Remus leaped in derision over it, whereupon 
Romulus slew him, exclaiming : " So perish all who dare to 
climb these ramparts !" 

Rome an Asylum . — To supply the city with inhabitants, 
Romulus made it an asylum for every one whom guilt or 
misfortune might compel to flee from his native country. In 
this manner, there were soon assembled around him insolvent 
debtors, fugitive slaves, and friends of novelty. Such were the 
first inhabitants of Rome; such, the beginnings of an empire 
which was to conquer the world, and produce a countless 
number of profound politicians, able generals, accomplished 
orators and scholars, and great men of every description ! 

Rape of the Sabines. — As soon as Romulus deemed 
himself strong enough, he demanded wives from his neigh- 
bors for the men whom he had collected around him ; but such 
intermarriage was scornfully refused. Romulus then had 
recourse to stratagem. He proclaimed that games were to 
be celebrated in honor of the god Censzis, and invited the 
Latins and Sabines to the festival. They came in numbers 
with their wives and children. But, whilst their attention was 
riveted upon the spectacle, the Romans seized and carried 
off the maidens to their stronghold. The disconsolate 
parents returned home, and prepared for vengeance. 

Victories of Romulus. — The Latin inhabitants of 
Csecina were the first to take the field. Romulus marched 
out against them, and, slaying Acron their leader with his 
own hand, put them to flight, and took their city at the first 
onset. Equally capable of performing great exploits and 
enhancing their value, he retraced his steps towards Rome, 
wearing a crown of laurel, and holding in his hand the arms 
of Acron as a trophy, while his men chanted hymns in honor 
of the gods. In this order they reentered Rome; and, 
having built a temple to Jupiter on the Capitoline hill, dedi- 
cated to the god the arms and armor of Acron, as spolia 
opima* Two other Latin towns, Antemnse and Crustu- 
merium, next took up arms to avenge the rape of their mai- 
dens, but with the same ill success as the Caecinians. 



*These were offered, when, with his own hand, the commander 
of an army slew the hostile leader. They were gained but twice 
afterwards. 



fe. c. 753-509. THfi MONARCHY. 33I 

Tarpeia.— The Romans found much greater difficulty in 
warding off the vengeance of the Sabines of Cures. Under 
their king Titus Tatius, they came against Rome in such 
overwhelming numbers, that Romulus, unable to withstand 
them in the field, was forced to retire into the city. As an 
outpost, he had fortified the top of the Capitoline hill, which he 
intrusted to the care of Tarpeius. But this man's daughter, 
Tarpeia, dazzled by the golden bracelets of the Sabines, 
promised to betray the hill to them, 'if they would give her 
what they wore on their left arms.' Her oner was accepted. 
In the night-time she opened a gate, and let in the enemy. 
But, when she claimed her reward, they crushed her to 
death by throwing upon her their shields, which they wore 
on their left arms. One of the heights of the Capitoline has 
preserved her name. It was from the Tarpeian rock that 
traitors were afterwards hurled down. 

The Cures Settle on the Quirinal. — On the next 
day, the Romans endeavored to recover the hill. A battle 
was fought in the valley between the Palatine and the Capi- 
toline. The Sabines prevailed, and were pursuing the 
Romans up the ascent of their own hill, when Romulus 
vowed a temple to Jupiter Stator* (the stayer of flight), and 
his men, taking courage, in their turn began to press hard 
on the Sabines. Then it was that the women, who were the 
cause of the war, rushing between the combatants, entreated 
them to desist from an unnatural conflict, or else turn against 
them their weapons, since they preferred to perish, rather 
than become widows by the death of their husbands or 
orphans by the fall of their fathers. Their voices prevailed. 
A reconciliation took place, and the two parties agreed to 
live together as one people. The Romans continued to 
dwell on the Palatine, and the Sabines took up their abode 
on the Quirinal.f To transact business, the two communi- 
ties assembled in the valley between their respective hills, 
which was hence called comitium y or the place of meeting, 
and which afterwards became the Roman forum. 

Death of Romulus. — At the end of five years, Titus 

* The temple was duly erected and dedicated. From age to age, 
it was renewed and restored. 

t So called probably from quiris, the Sabine word for spear, or 
from Quirites, an appellation of the Sabines, which was afterward 
applied to the Roman people in their civil capacity. Some wri- 
ters assign the Capitoline as the dwelling-place of the Sabines. 



332 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. I. 

Tatius was slain in battle. Henceforth, Romulus ruled alone 
over the combined nations. He carried on fresh wars, in 
which he is said to have been uniformly successful. At last, 
after a prosperous reign of 27 years, the founder of the Ro- 
man state was removed suddenly from the world. During 
a review in theCamftus Martins^ an eclipse of the sun took 
place, accompanied by an awful tempest which dispersed the 
people. When they reassembled, the king had disappeared. 
They were made to believe, that his father Mars had carried 
him to heaven in a fiery chariot, and they worshipped him 
as the god Ouirinus. To him the Romans, in subsequent 
ages, fondly ascribed their civil, political, and military organ- 
ization — the chief features of which shall here be explained. 

Patricians and Clients. — Under Romulus the popu- 
lation of Rome, we are told, consisted only of patricians and 
their clients. The former alone had political rights. Each 
of them acted as patron to a number of clients attached to 
him personally, and whose interest it was his duty to protect, 
while the client had to render him certain fixed services. 
On what principle Romulus divided his followers into patri- 
cians and clients, has never been ascertained. When, later, 
a fresh element was incorporated with the original population, 
the new-comersf constituted a third class, that known as the 
plebs, or common people, inferior not only to the patricians 
but even to the clients. 

The Comitia Curiata. — Another institution ascribed to 
Romulus, was that of the comitia curiata, with the implied 
organization of the patricians into tribes and atries. Besides 
the Sabines from Cures, Etruscans from Caeles who assisted 
Romulus in his wars, were also settled by him in Rome. 
Hence three classes, or tribes, of patricians ; the Ramnes 
drawn from the original followers of Romulus, the Tities 
drawn from the Sabines of Titus Tatius, and the LuceresJ 
drawn from the Etruscans of Caeles. Each tribe comprised 
ten curies ; and each curie, ten families (ge?ites). The 30 
curise formed the comitia curiata^ or sovereign assembly of 

*The Field of Mars, on the banks of the Tiber, outside the city. 

f Except such as might be raised to the clientship by being ad- 
mitted to some of the privileges of a patrician house, one of which 
was the right of bearing the gentile, or family, name of the patron. 

% This tribe was for a long time regarded as of inferior dignity, 
and its chiefs were distinguished as patres minarum gentium. 
The Ramnes took precedence of both the other tribes. 



B. C. 753-509. THE MONARCHY. 3-7-2 

the curies. To it belonged the right to elect the* king, 
make laws, declare war or peace, choose the magistrates and 
the pontiffs, and decide in all cases affecting the life of a 
citizen. The ordinary business of government, however, 
was entrusted to a less numerous body, the senate. 

The Senate. — To assist him in the government, Romu- 
lus selected a number of aged men, forming a senate, or 
council of elders, who were called patres, or senators.f It 
comprised at first only 100 members. To these an additional 
hundred was afterwards added, chosen from among the 
Sabines of Cures. The Luceres were not represented in the 
senate, till the time of the elder Tarquin. The senate con- 
trolled the finances, imposed taxes, and voted the money 
required for public expenses. It managed the foreign 
affairs of the state; and discussed all changes in the law, 
before these were submitted to the votes of the curies. 

The Army. — Each of the three tribes was bound to 
furnish iooo men for the infantry and ioo for the cavalry. 
Thus 3000 foot-soldiers and 300 horsemen formed, we are 
told, the original army of the Romans. 

Numa Pompilius (b. c. 7 1 6-673).— After an interregnum, 
during which the senators exercised the regal functions in 
turn, as interreges (between-kings), a successor was given to 
Romulus, in the person of Numa Pompilius, one of the Sabine 
inhabitants of the city. ■ Differing in blood from his pred- 
ecessor, Numa was unlike him also in disposition. A 
disciple of Pythagoras and a philosopher, he made it his aim 
to imbue the Romans with a relish for the arts of peace, with 
respect for the laws, and, above all, with sentiments of religion. 

As the constitution of Rome was ascribed to her first king, 
so were her religious observances to the second. Instructed 
by the nymph Egeria, whom he met in the sacred grove of 

*The votes were given by curies, but the vote of each curie was 
determined by the independent suffrages of the patricians who 
composed it. 

^ t fSenate and senator come from senex, which means advanced. 
in age. Those who composed the senate were also called patres, 
either by reason- of their age and because they were heads of 
families, or perhaps also because they were expected to watch with 
paternal care over the commonwealth. The epithet conscripti 
{conscript or enrolled) was first applied to new senators chosen 
to fill vacancies ; but, after being thus peculiar to members recent- 
ly elected, it became finally common to all. 



334 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. I. 



Aricia, Numa instituted 4 pontiffs * who had the general 
superintendence of religion ; 4 augurs, to consult the 
gods on public and private occasions ; $flamens> or priests, 
of Jupiter, f Mars, and Quirinus ; 4 Vestal virgins, to keep 
alive the sacred fire brought from Alba Longa; in fine, 12 
salzz, or priests of Mars, to watch over the ancilia,% or 
sacred shields. Numa reformed the calendar, encouraged 
agriculture, divided among the poor citizens lands conquered 
by Romulus, and marked out the boundaries of property, 
which he placed under the care of the god Termimcs. He 
also built the temple of Janus, a god represented with two 
heads looking different ways. The gates of this temple were 
to be open during war, and closed in time of peace. During 
the 43 years of Numa's reign, they were kept constantly shut. 

By some, Romulus and Numa are thought to be fictitious 
names, and these monarchs themselves personifications 
rather than real personages. The case is different with 
respect to the next king. Tullus Hostilius is by all regarded 
as a real name. With his reign we touch on personal history 
in Roman records. 

Tullus Hostilius (b. c. 671-641).— On the death of 
Numa, the throne remained vacant for two years. Then 
Tullus Hostilius, a Roman, was appointed king, whose whole 
reign was spent in warlike enterprises. Of these the most 
memorable was his contest with Alba Longa, rendered 
famous by the battle of the Horatii and Curiatii. 

The Horatii and Curiatii. — When the two armies of 
Rome and Alba stood facing each other, the leaders, not 
to weaken their forces by mutual slaughter, resolved to 
decide the quarrel by a combat of three champions on each 
side. The Horatii, three brothers, fought for Rome; the 
Curiatii, also three brothers, fought for Alba. It was 
agreed that the people whose champions should be victo- 
rious, should rule the other. 

The brothers, ' carrying within themselves the courage of 
two great armies/ advanced from their respective camps with 
.equal resolution, the beholders awaiting the result with 
breathless anxiety. In a few moments, two of the Horatii 
fell dead. The Albans at this spectacle shouted for joy, 

*The first in dignity was the pontifex maximus y high-priest. 
fThe flamen of Jupiter was called flamen Dialis. 
JOne of them was said to have fallen from heaven ; Numa 
ordered 11 others to be made exactly like this miraculous one. 



B. C. 753-509. THE MONARCHY. o^e 

whilst the Romans were dismayed, and trembled for their 
champion. Fortunately for them, he had received no 
wound ; and, although unequal to the task of fighting the 
three Albans together, was more than a match for them 
singly, as they had all been wounded. To separate them, 
he retreated ; and, as the Curiatii, unable to keep up with 
him, were soon at some distance from one another, he rushed 
upon the nearest, whom he slew on the spot, and successively 
dispatched the other two. Thus, almost the same moment 
that had witnessed the despair of the Romans, saw them in 
the enjoyment of a complete victory. 

Trial of Horatius.— As Horatius was entering Rome, 
bearing his threefold spoils, his sister beheld on his shoulders 
a cloak which she recognized as that of her lover, one of the 
Curiatii. Bursting into passionate grief at the sight, she 
thereby enkindled the wrath of her brother, who smote her, 
exclaiming, " So perish every Roman woman who bewails a 
foe ! " Despite the atrociousness of the deed, king Tullus 
shrank from judging the man whose prowess had just gained 
a victory for Rome. But the duumvirs ', the two judges of blood, 
condemned him to be hanged on the fatal tree. The young 
man thereupon appealed to the people ; and they, moved by 
his own service to the state and by his father's tears, gave 
him his life. 

Destruction of Alba Longa — The Plebs. — The 
people of Alba were now subject to the authority of Rome ; 
but their dictator,* Mettius Funetius, chafed at the subordi- 
nate position. The more easily to shake off the yoke, he 
persuaded the Etruscans of Fidenae and Veii to declare war 
against Rome, promising to join them. Accordingly, as the 
battle raged, he gradually withdrew his forces from the 
field, thus leaving the Roman flank uncovered. Tullus, 
noticing this, shouted to his men, but with a voice loud 
enough to be heard by the enemy, that the movement of 
the Albans was made by his command, and for the purpose 
of attacking the Fidenates in the rear. The stratagem had 
its desired effect. The confederates were terrified, and the 
Romans obtained a complete victory. After the battle, 
Mettius, who had not dared to carry out his treasonable 
project, congratulated Hostilius. The king pretended to be 

*Such was the name of the supreme magistrate among the 
Albans. 



336 ANCIENT ROME. Ohapt. I. 

deceived. But, on the following day, he caused the unsus- 
pecting Albans to be surrounded by his armed troops, and, 
arresting their general, had his body drawn by horses. He 
then razed the city of Alba, and transferred the inhabitants 
to Rome. They were compelled to settle on the Ccelian 
hill. Some of their nobles were admitted among the Roman 
patricians, but the bulk of them were excluded from the 
privileges of the ruling class. They were the origin of the 
Roman pleb s. Tullus Hostilius is said to have carried on 
several other wars, in all of which he came off victorious. 
He was struck dead by lightning. 

Ancus Marcius (b. c. 640-616). — Ancus Marcius, a 
Sabine, was the successor of Tullus Hostilius. He was the 
son of Numa's daughter, and sought to tread in the foot- 
steps of his grandfather, by reviving the religious ceremo- 
nies which had fallen into neglect. But a war with the Lat- 
ins called him from the pursuit of peace. He used his 
victories for the aggrandizement of his capital, by transfer- 
ring to Rome the populations of the conquered cities, whom 
he settled on Mount Aventine. Thus the number of the 
plebeians was greatly enlarged. 

The Fetiales ; Pons Sublicius ; Ostia. — Ancus in- 
stituted Xhefetiales, whose duty it was to demand satisfaction 
from a foreign state when any dispute arose, to determine 
the circumstances under which hostilities might be com- 
menced, and to perform the proper religious rites on the 
declaration of war. As a protection against the Etruscans, 
he erected a fortress on the Janiculum, which he connected 
with the city by the pons sublicius, a. bridge resting on 
wooden piles. To Ancus also is ascribed the Mamertine 
prison* under the Capitoline hill, as well as the colony and, 
port of Ostia, at the mouth of the Tiber. 

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus (b. c. 616-578). — The 
fifth king of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, or the elder Tarquin, 
was an Etruscan by birth, but a Greek by descent. His 
father, Demaratus, was a wealthy citizen of Corinth, who 
settled in the Etruscan city of Tarquinii, where he married 
into a noble family. Lucius, the offspring of this marriage, 
early removed to Rome with his wife Tanaquil and a large 
train of followers. When he reached the Janiculum, an 

*The Tullianum, or lower dungeon, was added to it by Servius 
Tullius. 



B. C. 753-509. THE MONARCHY. 337 

eagle seized his cap, and, after carrying it away to a great 
height, placed it again upon his head. Tanaquil, who was 
skilled in the Etruscan science of augury, bade her husband 
hope for the highest honors. Her prediction was soon veri- 
fied. Tarquin became a favorite with both people and king, 
and on the death of Ancus was raised to the vacant throne. 

His Victories, Great Works, and Institutions. — 
Not inferior to his predecessors in warlike exploits, the new 
king surpassed them in the number and character of his 
great works. He took from the Sabines the town of Col- 
latia, and brought many of the Latin towns under his rule. 
The captives taken in these wars, he is said to have employed 
on the public works which have immortalized his name. 
The great cioacce, or sewers, by which he drained the lower 
parts of the city, still remain, after so many ages, with not a 
stone displaced. He laid out the Circus Maximus, and 
there gratified the people with shows and games, on a scale 
of magnificence hitherto unknown at Rome. He added to 
the senate ioo new members, taken from the Luceres, the 
third tribe instituted by Romulus. These new senators 
were called patres minor um gentium, to distinguish them 
from the old, who were now termed patres majorum gentium. 
With each of the three centuries of equites he associated 
another under the same name, so that henceforth there were 
the first and the second — Ramnes, Tities, and Luceres. 
Finally, he increased to six the number of Vestal virgins. 

After a long and brilliant reign, Tarquinius Priscus was 
assassinated by the sons of Ancus. The crime proved of no 
avail to its authors, and the throne was occupied by Tar- 
quin's son-in-law, Servius Tullius. 

Servius Tullius (b. c. 578-534. — Roman traditions 
represent Servius Tullius as the son of a female slave. His 
infancy was said to have been marked by prodigies, which 
foreshadowed his future greatness. On one occasion, as he 
was asleep, a flame was seen playing around his head. 
Thereupon, Tanaquin, foreseeing the greatness of the boy, 
had him brought up as the king's child. Tarquin afterward 
gave him his daughter in marriage, and shared with him the 
cares of government. When the rumor of Tarquin's assas- 
sination spread through the city, crowds ran from all quar- 
ters to the royal residence. But Tanaquil, closing the gates, 
addressed the people from a window, giving out that the 
king's wound was not mortal, and that ? pending his recovery. 



338 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. I. 

he had appointed Servius to govern in his name. Servius 
forthwith began to discharge the duties of king, greatly to 
the satisfaction of the people ; and, when the death of Tar- 
quin could no longer be concealed, he was already in pos- 
session of the regal power. His reign is almost as barren 
of warlike achievements as that of Numa. His great deeds 
were those of peace. To him is attributed the organization 
in one great league of all the towns of Latium, with Rome 
at the head. 

Wall of Servius. — Servius surrounded with a stone 
wall the seven hills * over which the city had now spread ; 
and, where the hills sloped gently to the plain, between the 
Collina and the Esquiline gate, he constructed a gigantic 
mound nearly one mile long, and fronted by a moat ioo feet 
in breadth and 30 in depth. Rome thus acquired a circum- 
ference of five miles. This continued to be the legal extent 
of the city, till the time of the emperors. 

Reforms of Servius. — The greatest work of Servius 
was his reform of the constitution, whereby he aimed at 
giving the plebeians some political rights, and transferring 
to wealth part of that influence which till now exclusively 
belonged to birth. This double object he sought to attain 
by means of two new divisions of the Roman people, based 
the one on the place of residence, the other on fortune. 

Hitherto the only existing political organization was that 
of the patricians into 3 tribes, 30 curies, and 300 gentes 
(families) — an organization hereditary, exclusively patrician, 
and unconnected with localities. With this Servius did not 
interfere. The patrician families continued, as of old, to 
meet in their comitia curiata. But, by the side of this ex- 
clusively patrician assembly of the curies, two others were 
introduced, containing a plebeian element — the comitia tri- 
bida and the comitia centuriata, that is, the assembly of the 
tribes and the assembly of the centuries. 

The Comitia Tributa. — Instead of the 3 exclusively 
patrician tribes of Romulus, Servius organized 30, by divi- 
ding first the city itself into 4 quarters, each of which consti- 
tuted one urban tribe; and then the whole Roman territory 

* The celebrated 7 hills upon which Rome stood, are the Pala- 
tine, Aventine, Capitoline, Ccelian, Quirinal, Viminal, and Esqui- 
lian. The Mons Pincius (the Pincian) was not inclosed within the 
Servian wall. The J aniculum arose just opposite the city, on the 
northern side of the Tiber. 



B. C. 753-509- 



THE MONARCHY. 



339 



into 26 districts, which formed as many rural tribes. As this 
division was purely local, the new tribes contained plebeians 
as well as patricians. Each tribe had its chief ofhcer — the 
tribunus, who kept the list of its families, and levied the 




taxes. It also had its own judges and police, its own tribu- 
nals and temples. At stated times, the members of the 
separate tribes assembled for the purpose of choosing their 
own tribal officers, and regulating their local affairs, when all 



34<3 



ANCIENT ROME. 



Chapt* L 



freemen had the right of casting votes, which were counted 
by polls. Besides these particular tribal assemblies, all the 
tribes Were afterwards allowed to meet in a body, which from 
its composition, was called comitia iributa. This assembly of 
the tribes, at first, dealt only with political affairs of minor 
importance. But, in course Of time, as the plebeians rose in 
power, its jurisdiction was extended. In the end, what were 
called the inferior magistracies, that is, those below the consul- 
ship, pretorship, and edileship, were bestowed by the individ- 
ual votes of the citizens in the general assembly of the tribes. 
The Comitia Centuriata. — The other Servian division 
of the people, or that into classes and centuries, had wealth 
for its basis. It was a military organization, whereby the 
rich plebeians were raised almost to a political equality with the 
patricians. Having taken the census* both of the people 
and their property, Servius organized the plebeians who 
possessed a fortune of 400,000 asses f (about $ 6,000) into 
12 equestrian centuries, which he added to the 6 patrician 
centuries viequites already in existence. The rest of the free- 
men who possessed property to the amount of at least 12,500 
asses, he then organized into 5 classes according to wealth, 
the first class containing the richest citizens, the second class 
the next in point of fortune, and so on. Each of the 5 classes 
was divided into a certain number of centuries^ or com- 



*The census was henceforth taken at the end of every five years, 
and the interval, which was called a lustrum, came to be used as a 
mode of reckoning the lapse of time. The taking of the census was 
accompanied by religious rites for the purification of the city. 

t An as was equivalent to nearly i}4 cent. 

PROPERTY. CENTURIES. 

f Equites, or Cavalry.. .400, 000 asses at least... 18 

f 40 of old men. 

* I Class 100,000 " " -j 40 " young men. 

engineers, 
old men. 
young men. 
old 



II Class 75>ooo 

III Class..* 50,000 

IV Class 25,000 

% 



V Class...... 12,500 

Proletarii...*.* * 4 .. 4 . ....... 



40 
2 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 
10 

15 

15 

1 

2 

1 



young 
old ' " 
young " 
old 

young ^ " 
accensi, 
cornicines, 



B. C. 753-509. . THE MONARCHY. 34 1 

panies, half of which consisted of seniores from the age of 
46 to 60, and half of juniores, from the age ef 17 to 45. 
All the classes had to provide their own arms and armor ; 
but the expense of the equipment was in proportion to the 
wealth of each. The 5 classes formed the infantry. These 
persons whose property fell below 12,500 asses, the prole- 
tarii (capite censi), how large soever their number, were 
reckoned but . 1 century. They were not allowed to serve 
as soldiers, being too poor to bear the expenses. The peo- 
ple, thus divided, mustered as an army in the Campus 
Martins* outside the city, and formed what were called 
comitia centuriata. To this assembly of all centuries Servius 
transferred the business hitherto entrusted to the comitia 
curiaia, viz., the right of electing kings and the higher 
magistrates, of enacting and repealing laws, and of deciding 
in cases of appeal from the sentence of a judge. In the 
comitia centuriata each century had but one vote, and the 
preponderance lay with age and wealth. For the centuries 
of the old men, though with fewer members, equalled in num- 
ber those of the young ; and the centuries of the equites and 
the first class alone outnumbered all the rest. These always 
voted first. Whenever they agreed, their vote was decisive ; 
it was only when they differed, that the centuries of the 
lower classes were called upon to cast their suffrages. For 
a long time, no enactment of the comitia centuriata\ was 
held valid, till ratified by the exclusively patrician assembly 
of the curies. 

Tragic Death of Servius Tullius. — Servius gave his 
two daughters in marriage to Lucius and Aruns, the sons of 
Tarquinius Priscus. But the match was ill-sorted ; for the 
ambitious and cruel Tullia was married to the gentle Aruns, 

* The field of Mars was the usual place for drills, reviews, and 
all sorts of gymnastic and warlike exercises. It was included in 
the city walls by Aurelian. 

f During the sitting of the comitia centuriata, a red flag was 
hoisted on the Janiculum, guarded by a picket of soldiers. Origi- 
nally the striking of this military ensign denoted the approach of a 
hostile Etruscan force, and the comitia was instantly broken up to 
allow the citizen soldiers to rush to the defence of their ramparts. 
Subsequently, the signal might be given on the demand of any trib- 
une who should declare the omens to be adverse, as at the sound of 
thunder, or even the falling of rain. In any case, on the appear- 
ance of the signal, the business of the assembly was at once 
suspended. 



342 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. I. 



while the proud Lucius was the husband of her softer sister. 
Lucius and Tullia were drawn toward each other by the 
similarity of their characters, and before long they made 
away with the brother and sister who stood in their way, and 
became united in marriage stained by innocent blood. 
Lucius now formed a conspiracy with the patricians, who 
were enraged at the reforms of Servius, and he boldly 
usurped the kingly seat in the senate-house. Servius hastened 
thither; and, standing at the doorway, bade his son-in-law 
to come down from the throne. But Lucius sprang for- 
ward, seized the aged king, and flung him down the stone 
steps. Bruised and covered with blood, the old man was 
making his way home, when he was dispatched by the 
adherents of Tarquin. Meanwhile, the heartless Tullia drove 
to the senate-house, to greet her husband as king. Her 
charioteer pointed out the corpse of her father lying across 
the road. She commanded him to drive on ; and her father's 
blood spirting over the way, gave to the street its name of 
Vicus Sceleratus (the wicked street). 

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus* (b. c. 534-509). — One 
of the first acts of Tarquin's reign was to abolish the privi- 
leges which had been conferred on the plebeians by Servius. 
A genuine tyrant, he compelled the poor to work at misera- 
ble wages upon his magnificent buildings. Nor had the 
patricians much cause to rejoice at having placed him on 
the throne. Tarquin surrounded himself with a body-guard, 
through whose means he was enabled to put to death, or 
drive into exile, all the senators and patricians that he mis- 
trusted. But, although a cruel despot at home, partly by 
his alliances and partly by his conquests, he raised the state 
to great influence and power abroad. He made Rome the 
real mistress of the confederation of 47 Latin towns, which 
before had stood as allies on a footing of equality. At the 
solemn meeting of the Latins on the Alban Mount, it was 
his privilege, in the name of all, to sacrifice the bull, and dis- 
tribute the flesh to the people of the league. 

The Capitol. — In a war against the Volscians, Tarquin 
captured the wealthy town of Suessa Pometia. With the 
spoils of this city, he commenced the erection of that mag- 
nificent temple which became afterwards, under the name of 
the Capitol, so famous and so sacred. It was dedicated to 

* Superbus, the Proud. 



B. C. 753-509. THE MONARCHY. 343 

the three gods of the Latin and Etruscan religions* — Jupiter, 
Juno, and Minerva. A human head {caput), fresh bleeding 
and undecayed, is said to have been found by the workmen, 
as tHey were digging the foundation. This was construed 
into a sign that the place was destined to become the head of 
the world; and the hill and the temple were accordingly 
named Capitolium, In a stone vault beneath were deposited 
the Sibylline books, containing obscure and prophetic say- 
ings. 

The Sibylline Books. — One day, a woman from Cumae 
appeared before the king, and offered to sell him 9 books for 
300 gold pieces. He refused. She departed; and, after 
burning three of the volumes, returned, and offered the 
remaining six at the same price. As the king merely answered 
with a laugh, she again burned three, and for the remaining 
demanded the same price. Wondering now at this strange 
conduct, Tarquin purchased the books. They were placed 
under the care of two patricians ; and, being consulted at 
critical junctures, became, in the hands of priests and nobles, 
an important instrument of government. 

Capture of Gabii. — The Latin city of Gabii had refused 
to join the league. Tarquin undertook to reduce it by force, 
and for several years an irregular warfare was kept up be- 
tween Rome and Gabii. At lastj Sextus, a son of Tarquin, 
pretending to be ill treated by his father, fled to Gabii. 
The infatuated inhabitants intrusted him with the command 
of their troops. He then sent a messenger to his father, to 
inquire how he should act. Tarquin was walking in his 
garden, when the envoy reached him. He listened without 
saying a word, but kept striking off with his stick the heads 
of the tallest poppies. Sextus took the hint. He put to 
death or banished all the leading Gabians, and then had no 
difficulty in compelling the city to submit to his father. 

Brutus at Delphi. — In the midst of his prosperity, the 
tyrant was troubled by a strange portent. One day, a ser- 
pent crawled out from beneath the altar in the royal palace, 
and seized on the entrails of the victim. The king, in fear, 
sent his sons Titus and Aruns, to consult the oracle at 
Delphi. They were accompanied by their cousin L. Ju- 
nius Brutus, whose brother had been put to death by Tar- 
quin, and who, to avoid the same fate, had assumed the 
character of a half-witted person. On arriving at Delphi, 
Brutus propitiated the goddess with the gift of a gold stick, 



344 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. I. 

inclosed in a hollow staff. The princes, his cousins, after 
executing the king's commission, asked which of his three 
sons was to succeed to their fathers power. " He," replied 
the priestess, "who shall first kiss his mother." Titus and 
Aruns then resolved to keep the answer secret from their 
brother Sextus who was at Rome, and to draw lots which 
of them, on their return, would first kiss the queen their 
mother. Brutus, who better understood the meaning of the 
oracle, fell, as if by chance, when they quitted the temple, 
and kissed the earth — our common mother. 

End of the Monarchy (b. c. 509). — During the siege of 
Ardea, Sextus Tarquinius, the king's son, offered violence 
to Lucretia, a noble matron, the wife of his cousin Tarquinius 
Collatinus. Thereupon the lady's husband and her father, 
with their friends Valerius and Brutus, swore to avenge the 
crime. Brutus, throwing off his assumed stupidity, sum- 
moned the people, and related the deed of shame. All classes 
were inflamed with indignation. A decree was passed, depos- 
ing the king, and banishing him and his family. The army at 
Ardea concurred in the same resolve ; and Tarquin, aban- 
doned by all, took refuge at Caere, in Etruria. Thus ended 
monarchy at Rome. 

Uncertainty of the Early Roman Chronology. — 
The dates hitherto given are gathered from the statements of 
various Latin writers, but cannot be regarded as of much 
historical value. More confidence may be placed in the 
dates which follow, because from the expulsion of the kings 
the Romans began to record the lapse of time by driving a 
nail every year into the door of the temple of Minerva, and 
carefully preserved a list of their successive consuls. There 
is still however, down to 275 b. c, much confusion in Roman 
chronology, nor is the period of legends and poetical em- 
bellishments yet at an end. 



CHAPTER II. 

Tarquin's Efforts to regain the Throne. — b. c. 509-496. 

The Consuls. — Tarquin, the Proud, had made the name 
of king so hateful, that the Romans, discarding royalty, 



B. C. 509. THE CONSULSHIP. ^a* 

established instead a supreme magistracy called the coiisul- 
ship. This office was intrusted to two men who were to 
hold it for only one year. They were elected by the comi- 
tia curiatdy and vested with the chief executive authority. 
The duties and functions of the consuls* were the same as 
those previously annexed to royalty. To avoid a conflict 
of authority, the two consuls generally exercised supreme 
power month by month, in turn; and, in time of war, it 
was usual for one to command in the field, while the other 
ruled over the city. The consul was the general-in-chief of 
the army. He presided over the senate, law-courts, and pub- 
lic assemblies. He conducted negotiations with foreign 
states, had the administration of the public moneys, carried 
out the decisions of the public assemblies, was, in a word, 
the chief executive of the commonwealth. 

Each consul was attended by 1 2 lictors, or guards. The 
lictors carried upon their shoulders fasces, which were a 
bundle of rods bound together with an ax in the middle. 

Brutus puts down a Conspiracy (b. c. 509). — The 
first consuls were L. Brutus and Tarquinius Collatinus. 
They revived the constitution of Servius Tullius,and passed 
several other measures favorable to the plebeians. Before 
long, however, Collatinus was driven into exile on account of 
his relationship with Tarquin, and his place was filled by P. 
Valerius. Meanwhile ambassadors came to Rome from 
Tarquin, claiming back his private property. The request 
was granted ; but, while the envoys were making prepara- 
tions t«o take away the property, they formed a conspiracy 
with the young Roman nobles for the restoration of the 
royal family. Among those implicated in the plot, were the 
two sons of Brutus. That stern patriot, insensible to any 
other interest than that of the public weal, unflinchingly or- 
dered the execution of his guilty children together with that 
of the other traitors. 

Death of Brutus. — Failing to recover the throne by 
■ secret intrigues, Tarquin procured the armed intervention of 

* The word consul has, by some, been derived from con and 
salio, indicating that these two magistrates marched together with 
equal power and joint dignity. A derivation more commonly 
received draws the appellation from consulere, which would 
imply that the incumbents were not sovereigns, but the counsellors 
and guardians of the republic. It is said that, at their first institu- 
tion, the new magistrates were named, not consuls, but pretors. 



346 ANCIENT ROME. Chatt. II. 

his Etruscan kinsmen, the people of Tarquinii and Veil. In 
the battle which ensued, Aruns spurred his horse against 
Brutus, who fought at the head of the Roman cavalry. The 
consul did not shrink from the encounter, and both fell from 
their horses mortally wounded. The fight between the two 
armies was kept up till nightfall, when they withdrew to 
their respective camp, each claiming the victory. But, in the 
dead of night, a voice was heard proclaiming that the Ro- 
mans had conquered, as they had lost one man less than 
their opponents. Alarmed at this, the Etruscans fled ; and 
Valerius, the surviving consul, returned to Rome, carrying 
the dead body of Brutus. The matrons, through gratitude 
for the avenger of chastity, mourned Brutus a whole year. 

Valerius Publicola. — Valerius was now left without a 
colleague ; and, as he began to build a house on an eminence 
which overlooked the forum, the Romans feared that he was 
aiming at kingly power. Thereupon Valerius not only 
pulled down the house, but, calling the people together, or- 
dered the lictors to lower the fasces before them, as an ac- 
knowledgment that their power was superior to his. He 
then brought forward a law, enacting that every citizen who 
was condemned by a magistrate, should have a right of ap- 
peal to the people. For this and other gracious enactments, 
the grateful Romans surnamed him Publicola or Poplicola 
(the people's friend). When Valerius died, he was so poor 
that he left not wherewith to defray the cost of his funeral. 
He was buried at the public expense, and received the same 
honors that had been paid to the memory of Brutus. 

Horatius Cocles. — Not discouraged by the failure of 
his former attempts to recover the crown, Tarquin now pro- 
cured the aid of Lars Porsena, the powerful ruler of the 
Etruscan town of Clusium. This prince came against Rome 
at the head of a large force. In vain the Romans attempted 
to arrest his march. They were put to flight, and the vic- 
tors would have entered the city by the Sublician bridge, 
together with the vanquished, had not Horatius Cocles with 
two other soldiers kept the whole Etruscan army at bay, 
while his comrades broke down the bridge. When the 
structure was gi\ing away, he sent back his two companions, 
and withstood alone the attacks of the foe, till the cracksof 
the falling timber and the shouts of his countrymen told him 
the work was done. Then, praying " O Father Tiber, take 
me into thy charge and bear me up !" he leaped into the 



B. C. 503. . LARS PORSENA. 347 

stream, and swam across in safety. The state raised him a 
statue, and allowed him as much land as he could plow 
round in one day. 

Mucius Sc^evola — Clcelia. — Porsena now proceeded 
to lay siege to the city. Owing to the large population 
which had crowded within its walls, Rome soon began to 
suffer from famine. Thereupon a young Roman, named C. 
Mucius, resolved to deliver his country by murdering the 
Etruscan king ; but, mistaking the person of Porsena, he 
killed his secretary instead. Seized and threatened with 
torture, he thrust his right hand into the fire on the altar, 
and there let it burn * to show how little he^ heeded pain. 
Astonished at his courage, Porsena bade him depart in 
peace, when Mucius revealed the fact that he was but the 
first of 300 Roman youths who had sworn to take the life of 
the monarch. Porsena was alarmed, and forthwith offered 
peace, on condition that the Romans would restore a certain 
territory to the Veientines. These terms were accepted, and 
the invader withdrew, leading away as hostages ten youths 
and ten maidens. Clcelia, one of the latter, escaping from 
the Etruscan camp, swam across the Tiber to Rome. Her 
countrymen sent her back. But Porsena, admiring her 
courage, set her free together with the other hostages. 

There is reason to believe that these brilliant stories con- 
ceal one of the earliest and greatest disasters of Rome. 
Some maintain that the city was really conquered by Por- 
sena. It is certain, that she lost all the territory which the 
kings had gained north of the Tiber. Hence, after this war, 
we find the 30 tribes of Servius reduced to 20 ; and, accord- 
ing to Pliny and others, Rome, at this time, was so com- 
pletely under the control of the Etruscans, that the use of 
iron, except for agricultural purposes, was forbidden to its 
inhabitants. • 

Tarquin raises Fresh Enemies — Although abandoned 
by his powerful Etruscan protector, the aged Tarquin was 
not yet disposed to acquiesce in his downfall. After Porsena 
left him to his own resources, the discrowned tyrant took 
refuge with his son-in-law Mamilius at Tusculum, and suc- 
ceeded in raising fresh enemies to the Romans. Such 
indeed were the difficulties in which the republic found 

* Mucius was henceforward called Scsevola (the left-handed), 
because his right hand had been burnt off. 



348 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt II. 



itself involved, that, in the year b. c. 501, a dictator was for 
the first time created to strengthen the hand of government. 

The First Dictator. — The dictator* was an extraor- 
dinary magistrate appointed in seasons of great peril. He 
was nominated by one of the consuls, after the senate had 
authorized or recommended the step. The dictator could 
not hold the office longer than six months, and he usually 
laid it down much sooner. During his term, he possessed 
absolute power, and from his decision there was no appeal. 
He himself appointed a second in command with the title of 
magister equitum, or master of the horse. Spurius Lartius 
was the first dictator of Rome. 

Battle of the Lake Regillus (b. c. 496). — In b. c. 
496, the efforts of Tarquin and of the 30 cities of Latium, 
which had espoused his cause, rendered necessary ^ the 
appointment of a second dictator. The choice, this time, 
fell on Aulus Postumius, who took T. ^Ebutius as his master 
of the horse. These two commanders met the hostile array 
on the shores of the lake Regillus,f whence the decisive 
action which followed took its name. Never was a battle 
fought with greater animosity. Almost all the chiefs p on 
either side fell or were grievously wounded. At a critical 
moment, Publicola, so the story runs, vowed a temple to 
Castor and Pollux. Presently two youths of eminent beauty 
and stature were seen charging at the head of the Roman 
cavalry, and turning the enemy to flight. While the victors 
were still engaged in the pursuit, the same heavenly warriors 
appeared in the forum, J washed their arms at the fountain 
of Juturna, and announcing the victory straightway vanished. 
Of the 47,000 Latins engaged, 7000 perished. 

Death of Tarquin. — Among the slain were Titus the 
last surviving son, and Mamilius the son-in-law, of Tarquin. 
The aged monarch, though wounded, escaped with his life ; 
but, despairing of obtaining further succor, he retired to 
Cumas, and there died in a miserable old age. 

*The title was taken from one in use among the Latins, to whom 
a corresponding office was familiar. To the person of the dictator 
the 24 consular lictors were attached. 

tNear the site of Alba. 

JA temple was afterward built in the forum, on the spot where 
they appeared, and their festival was celebrated yearly. 



B. C. 498-451. INTERNAL STRUGGLES. 349 



CHAPTER III. 

Struggle between Patricians and Plebeians down to the 
Decemvtrate in 451 b. c. 

Coriolanus. — The Fabii. — Cincinnatus. 

Poverty of the Plebeians. — In spite of the favor 
shown to the plebeians, first by Servius and then by Brutus 
and Valerius, the patricians retained exclusive possession of 
political power. For, as they owned nearly the whole 
wealth of the country, their influence in the comitia centu- 
riata was overwhelming. But far more galling to the plebe- 
ians than the privation of political privilege, was the increas- 
ing pressure of personal misery. Many had lost their estates, 
when, in the struggle with Porsena, the territory north of the 
Tiber was restored to the Etruscans. Many more had been 
ruined in consequence of incessant military service. For 
the Romans, it must be remembered, served in the army 
without pay. Those, therefore, who cultivated their farms 
with their own hands, and could not engage laborers in 
their absence, found themselves, on their return home, with- 
out means of subsistence or of purchasing seed for the next 
crop ; and borrowing was the only resource. The patricians 
were ready enough to lend money, but exacted for its use a 
high rate of interest. Nor did they hesitate to take advan- 
tage against the borrowers, of the existing law of debtor and 
creditor. 

Law of Debtor and Creditor. — By this law or custom, 
the debtor's estate might be seized to the last farthing, and 
himself imprisoned or forced to work as a slave. He might 
even, in certain cases, be sold with all his family ; nay, if 
there were more creditors than one, they might cut his body 
to pieces and divide it among them. The law applied 
equally to all Romans. But, in practice, it bore chiefly on 
the plebeians. They groaned under the burden of debt and 
the harshness of their creditors ; and but little was wanting 
to rouse them to fury against their oppressors. 

Secession to the Sacred Mount (b. c. 494). — One 
day during the consulship of Appius Claudius and P. Ser- 
vilius, B. c. 495, an old man clothed in rags rushed into 

30 



350 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. III. 

the forum, and appealed to the people for protection. He 
was recognized as one of the bravest centurions in the army. 
On his breast he bore the scars of honorable wounds 
received in battle. On his back were seen the marks of 
recent stripes. This incidont -so inflamed the spectators, 
that a tumult arose. At the same moment, it was announced 
that the Volscians were in arms. The consuls summoned 
the citizens to enlist. The plebs refused, and defied the 
law. The consuls promised that their wrongs should be 
redressed, and offered release from their debts to all who 
would serve. The ranks were- soon filled, and the enemy 
defeated. But the senate, with Appius at their head, now 
refused to fulfill their bargain, and ordered the debtors back 
to their prisons. The plebeians, however, resisted this 
measure. Jn the following year, their discontent became so 
menacing, that the senate appointed Valerius Yolesus dicta- 
tor. He dealt mildly with the insurgents, and earned their 
good will ; but his efforts at conciliation failed, and at length 
the plebeians seceded to a rising ground three miles from 
the city, which was afterward called the Mo?is Sacer, or 
Sacred Mount. 

The Fable of the Belly and the Members. — A 
civil war seemed imminent ; but both parties shrunk from so 
suicidal a course. The patricians sent the first ten of the 
senate to treat with the seceders. One of the mediators, 
Menenius Agrippa, related to them the celebrated fable of 
the Belly and the Members. " Once upon a time," he said, 
" the members refused to work for the belly, because it led 
a lazy life, and grew fat upon their toils. Thereupon the 
belly declined its part ; and the members, no longer receiv- 
ing its aid, began to pine away, and found that it was to the 
belly they owed their life and strength." 

Institution of Two Plebeian Tribunes. — The fable 
was understood, and the plebeians agreed to treat with the pa- 
tricians. It was decided that existing debts should be can- 
celled, and that all debtors in bondage should be restored to 
their liberty. Moreover, as a security for the future, the 
plebeians obtained that two of their own number should be 
elected annually, to whom they might appeal for assistance, 
and who should watch over their interests. These persons 
were declared sacred and inviolable. They were never to 
quit the city during their year of office ; and, night and day, 
their houses were to remain open for the convenience of 



B. C. 498-451. INTERNAL STRUGGLES. 35 1 

all who might need them. The election of the new officers at 
first took place at the comitia of the centuries, but was after- 
ward transferred to the assembly of the tribes. The power 
and attributions of the tribunes grew with time, and the 
right of intercession* was vested in them, whereby they 
could put a veto (inter cedd) upon any public business. 

Ediles. — At the Sacred Mount, the plebeians obtained 
also the privilege of having two ediles of their order ap- 
pointed, to take charge of the markets, provisions, and 
public buildings. To these two plebeian ediles, two others 
— the curule \ — were added in b. c. 365; and the four had, 
in common, the superintendence of the police, the care of 
the cleansing and draining of the city, and the regulation of 
the public festivals. Above all, the celebration of the Ludi 
Mag7ii (great games) was their especial function. Originally, 
they received from the state the money to defray the expen- 
ses of the public games. But, about the time of the first 
Punic war, the grant was withdrawn, and henceforth the 
charges of these costly entertainments had to be met by the 
ediles out of their own private means. Instances are 
recorded of ediles thus incurring a prodigious expense, in 
order to gain the favor of the people, and secure their 
votes in future elections. 

The Public Land. — The amount of land originally given 
by Romulus to each citizen as his private property, was two 
jugera, or about 1 x /z acre. This was called the quiritary 
land, and passed from father to son by inheritance. The 
remainder of the Roman territory was retained by the state 
as public land (ager publicus). The portion of it which was 
pasture, could be used by any one who chose to pay so much 
to the state for every head of cattle ; but the arable land was 
retained by the patricians, who held it as state tenants, on 
condition of yielding to the treasury one-tenth of the corn 
and one-fifth of the wine and olives. As it was the practice 
of the Romans, on the subjugation of a people, to confis- 
cate a certain portion of their territory, the state lands, during 
the kingly period, received constant increase. Out of the new 

*From intercedere, to come between. 

f They were so called, because they had the right of sitting upon 
the sella curulis, the curule chair, originally an emblem of kingly 
power, imported along with other insignia of royalty from 
Etruria. The other curule magistracies were, in order of dignity, 
the dictatorship, censorship, consulship, and pretorship. 



352 Ancient rome. Chapt. lit 

acquisitions, portions were occasionally assigned to the ple- 
beians. Servius, in particular, thus endowed many of the 
more recent inhabitants of Rome who as yet had received no 
share of land. On the expulsion of Tarquin, when the 
estates originally set apart for the support of the king reverted 
to the state, Brutus also pursued the same just policy. But, 
as the patricians wielded the whole political power, they 
usually managed to prevent such measures from being fully 
and fairly carried out, keeping to themselves nearly all the 
advantages accruing from the public land, paying only a 
nominal rent for such portions as they cultivated, reserving 
the common pastures for their own cattle, and leaving a 
large portion of the population unendowed. No wonder 
that the plebeians chafed at such injustice. 

The First Agrarian Law (b. c. 486). — The plebeians, 
at last found a champion of their rights in one of the consuls, 
Spurius Cassius. It had always been held, that the public 
lands occupied by citizens might be resumed by the state. 
Accordingly Sp. Cassius, in concert with the tribunes, pro- 
posed a bill for their resumption, and for a redistribution 
which would give the plebeians their due share. Henceforth, 
too, the occupiers of what would be kept as public land, 
should be required to pay the rent ; and the proceeds of it 
were to be for a fund from which, in time of war, poorer 
citizens might be paid who could not afford without remu- 
neration to abandon their farms. Such was the first Agrarian 
law. As it struck at the wealth and power of the patricians, 
they stubbornly opposed it, and, when it passed, managed to 
make it a dead letter. 

Fate of Spurius. — At the end of his year of office, 
Spurius was accused of treason before the com Hi a curiata. 
He was condemned, and suffered the penalty of public 
scourging and beheading at the hands of the consular lictors. 
During his consulship, this remarkable man had united the 
Romans in solemn league with the Latins and Hernicians. 
This league proved of immense advantage to Rome, in the 
wars which she had soon to sustain against the combined 
power of the Yolscians and ^Equians. 

Coriolanus and the Volscians (b. c. 4SS*). — Caius 
Marcius, surnamed Coriolanus from his brilliant achievements 

*Some maintain that the romantic story of Coriolanus, ' if it 
deserve our credence at all,' belongs more probably to an era 
twenty years later. 



B. C. 498-451. INTERNAL STRUGGLES. 353 

at the capture of Corioli, was a brave but haughty patri- 
cian. He was hated by the plebeians, who refused him the 
consulship. This aroused his anger; and, when the city 
was suffering from famine, and a present of corn came from 
Sicily, he advised the senate not to distribute it among the 
plebeians, unless they consented to the abolition of the tri- 
buneship. This insolence enraged the plebeians, who, in their 
comitia of the tribes, condemned him to exile. Coriolanus 
then threw himself into the arms of the Volscians, and led 
them against his countrymen. Nothing could check his 
progress. Town after town fell before him, and he advanced 
within five miles of the city. The Romans, weakened by 
disunion, were filled with despair. They sent to him, hoping 
to move his compassion, the first ten men of the senate. He 
received them with the utmost sternness, and required an 
unconditional surrender. Next day, the pontiffs, augUrs, 
flamens, and all the priests, came in their robes of office, and 
entreated him in the name of the gods of Rome. But he 
was deaf to their prayers. At last, there went forth from the 
city to his tent a procession of Roman matrons, headed by 
his aged mother, his wife, and his little children. Their 
lamentations turned him from his purpose. " Mother," he 
said, bursting into tears, " thou hast saved Rome, but lost 
thy son ! " He then led the Volscians home. According 
to Plutarch, they put him to death for having betrayed them. 
Others relate that he lived to a great age, and was often 
heard to say that 'none but an old man can feel how wretched 
it is to live in a foreign land.' 

The Fabii and the Veientines (b. c. 477). — The Fa- 
bii, one of the most powerful of the patrician houses, had 
been among the leading opponents of the agrarian law ; and 
Kaeso Fabius, the most influential member of the family, 
had taken an active part in the condemnation of Sp. Cassius. 
But, in 482 b. c, Kaeso being consul for the second time, 
the plebeians had their revenge. They refused to complete 
a victory over the Veientines, or to seize the booty, in order 
to deprive the consul of the honor of a triumph. Soon after 
this, a change occurred in the conduct of the great Fabian 
gens or family. They assumed the lead of the popular 
party ; and, Kaeso, in his third consulship, proposed that 
the agrarian law should be carried into effect. By this the 
Fabii only earned for themselves the hatred of their order. 
Finding they could no longer live in peace at Rome, they 



354 



Ancient RoMfi. Chapt. iii. 



determined to found a separate settlement, where they might 
still be useful to their native land. Accordingly, the Fabian 
house, consisting of 306 males of full age, accompanied by 
their wives and children, clients and dependents, marched 
out of Rome, and proceeded straight to the Cremera, a river 
which flows into the Tiber below Veii. Here they established 
a fortified camp, and, sallying thence, laid waste the Veien- 
tine territory. For two years they sustained the whole 
weight of the Veientine war; nor did the enemy dare meet 
them in the open field. At last, the Veientines had recourse 
to stratagem. They secretly stationed troops in hilly places, 
and they drove a large number of cattle into the plain below. 
When the Fabii, descending from their fortress, prepared to 
seize the valuable prey, they were set upon and surrounded. 
Nor did their lion-like courage avail aught against the 
overwhelming multitude of the assailants. They were over- 
powered and slain. The settlement was destroyed, and no 
one of the house survived, except a boy who had been left 
behind at Rome, and who continued the illustrious line of 
the Fabii. 

Fresh Concessions to the Plebeians. — The Fabii 
were sacrificed to the hatred of the patricians. At the time 
of the battle, T. Menenius lay with an army at a short dis- 
tance, but did nothing to save them. For this neglect, he 
was impeached, found guilty, and condemned. On this oc- 
casion, the plebeians extorted from the senate the right to 
cite even the consuls before the comitia tributa — a right 
which became a powerful weapon in the hands of the popu- 
lar party.* 

The Publilian and the Icilian Law. — It was also at 
this time, that the famous Publilianf law was passed, which 
referred the election of the tribunes to the comitia tributa 
(b. C 471). In the course of the debates to which this mea- 
sure gave rise, the two tribunes Volero and Laetorius estab- 
lished the people in arms on the summit of the Tarpeian 
hill. The senate had no choice but to yield a reluctant con- 
sent. They had hitherto used the influence of wealth in the 
comitia of the centuries, to favor the election of tribunes 
who would be subservient to the patrician order. In the 

* Within 27 years, 7 consuls were thus accused, and condemned 
to exile or death. 

f So called from the name of its promoter, the tribune Volero 
Publilius. 



B. C, 498-45T. INTERNAL STRUGGLES, ^tjcj 

assembly of the tribes, wealth had no prerogative ; and the 
votes were given man by man, so that the power of the 
numerous plebeians was overwhelming. By the same law, 
the number of the tribunes was increased from two to five. 
Before long, the plebeians gained a fresh victory. Their 
tribune Sp. Icilius obtained the enactment of a law which 
made it a capital offence to interrupt a tribune, when in the 
act of addressing the assembly. 

Impeachment of Appius Claudius. — But soon the pa- 
tricians had their revenge. War being declared against the 
^quians and Volscians, the plebeians had to serve under 
the haughty Appius Claudius. In the camp, the consul was 
master of the persons of his soldiers and even of their lives. 
Appius, availing himself of this power, treated the plebeians 
with the utmost rigor of discipline ; and, when they refused 
to fight, he redoubled his severity, and freely used the rods 
and axes of the lictors. At the end of the campaign, how- 
ever, after he returned to Rome, and laid down his military 
power, the tribunes lost no time in citing him to answer, 
before the tribes, for his late tyrannical conduct. He replied 
with his usual arrogance ; but he knew his fate was inevita- 
ble, and went home from the meeting only to escape con- 
demnation by suicide. 

ClNCINNATUS AND THE ^EqUIANS (B. C. 458). — The 

^Equians, in their frequent attacks upon the Roman territory, 
generally occupied Mount Algidus, one of the group of the 
Alban hills in Latium. It was accordingly upon this mount 
that the battles between the Romans and the ^quians 
generally took place. In the year 558 B. c, the consul 
Minucius was defeated upon the Algidus, and surrounded in 
his camp." Five of his horsemen, however, succeeded in 
escaping, and brought news that the Roman army was in 
imminent danger. The senate forthwith created L. Quinc- 
tius Cincinnatus* dictator. The deputies who went to an- 
nounce his appointment, found him driving a plow, and clad 
only in his tunic. He hastily put on his toga, which his 
wife brought him ; and, having heard the commands of the 
senate, returned to Rome with the messengers. Early the 
next morning, appearing in the forum, he ordered all the 
men of military age to meet him at sunset in the Field of 
Mars, each with 12 stout stakes and food for five days. 

*So called for his curly locks. 



356 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IV. 

With these he sallied forth, and by midnight reached Mount 
Algidus. Placing his soldiers around the ^Lquian camp, he 
told them to raise the war-cry, and at the same time to dig a 
trench, and raise a mound, on the top of which the stakes 
were to be placed. The Romans who were shut in, hearing 
the war-cry of their countrymen, burst from their camp, and 
fought with the ^quians all night. The dictator's troops 
thus worked without interruption ; and, at dawn, the enemy 
found themselves hemmed in between the two Roman 
armies. They surrendered, and Cincinnatus made them all 
pass under the yoke— jugum, which was formed by two 
spears fixed upright with a third fastened across. That 
same day, the dictator reentered Rome in triumph. Within 
a fortnight, he had resigned his office, and was again at 
work on his farm. 



CHAPTER IV. 

The Decemvirate, Military Tribunate, Censorship, and 
Plebeian Questorship. — b. c. 452-421. 

The Terentilian Law (b. c. 452). — Hitherto Rome 
had possessed no written laws. Differences among the 
citizens were adjusted by the consuls and other patrician 
magistrates, according to ancient customs and natural equity. 
Hence the rectitude of the decisions depended almost en- 
tirely on the integrity or knowledge of the judges ; and 
sentences not seldom were or appeared arbitrary. The 
plebeians being the chief sufferers thereby, the tribune Te- 
rentilius Arsa proposed (b. c. 462) that a commission should 
be appointed to draw up a code of laws, by which a check 
might be put to the arbitrary power of the patrician magis- 
trates. This motion, naturally enough, gave rise to violent 
debates. The tribes, in their comitia, voted the measure, 
but the senate and the curies rejected it. For ten years, 
angry disputes and bloody contentions occurred between the 
two orders. At last, the resistance of the patricians was 
overcome. Three commissioners were sent to study the 
system of law in force, at Athens and elsewnere, among the 
Greeks. 



B. C. 450. THE DECEMVIRATEj 057 

The Citadel of the Plebeians. — During the struggle 
here referred to, the tribune Icilius carried (b. c. 454) a 
measure for surrendering to the poorer commons the whole 
of the Aventine hill, which was public domain, and which 
became from this time entirely occupied by the second 
order. The Aventine, the loftiest, and next to the Capitoline 
reputed the strongest eminence in Rome, now constituted 
the citadel of the plebeians, and henceforth greatly increased 
their political consideration. 

The Decemvirs (b. c. 450-448). — On the return of the 
commissioners, the nation, assembled in its centuries, chose 
ten persons — the decemvirs — to form a provisional govern- 
ment for a year, and during that time prepare a new code. 
The decemvirs superseded all the other magistrates, exercis- 
ing supreme authority day by day, in turn. They discharged 
the duties of their office with diligence, and dispensed justice 
with impartiality. In due time, they gave the result of their 
labor — ten tables of laws — chiefly embodying in a written 
form what had previously been matter of precedent and 
usage. These laws were laid before the comitia of the 
centuries and of the curies, and, being accepted by both, were 
engraved on bronze tables, and hung up in the comitium. 

Appius Claudius the Decemvir. — The new adminis- 
tration had given such satisfaction, that, when their term of 
office expired, the decemvirate was adopted as the regular 
government of the city and sole executive, in lieu of the 
consulship and tribuneship; and it was decided that the 
members should be chosen from both orders of the state. 
Unfortunately, the new officers allowed themselves to be 
dominated by the strong will of one of their number, Appius 
Claudius, and assumed the character of irresponsible tyrants. 
Each decemvir was attended by 12 lictors, so that 120 were 
seen in the city at the same time. No assemblies were held ; 
the senate was rarely convened ; and two new tables, con- 
firming the patricians in their most odious privileges, were 
added to the code. Nay more, at the end of the year, the 
decemvirs neither resigned nor held comitia for the election 
of successors. 

Sicinius Dentatus. — The war with the Sabines and the 
^Equians being renewed, two armies were dispatched against 
them, commanded by some of the decemvirs. In that which 
fought against the Sabines, was a centurion, Sicinius Den- 
tatus, who for his bravery has been called the Roman Achilles. 



35 8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IV. 

He had been present at 120 battles; had killed eight of the 
enemy in single combat; had received 45 wounds, all in 
front; had accompanied the triumphs of 6 generals; had 
won many war-crowns, and received innumerable other re- 
wards.* He was the hero of the plebeians. Under his 
leadership, they had won the Terentilian law, and he was 
now suspected of plotting against the decemvirs. His death 
was accordingly resolved on, and he was sent with a company 
of soldiers, as if to reconnoitre the enemy's position. But, 
in a lonely spot, they fell upon him, and slew him, though 
not until he had destroyed most of the traitors. Nothing 
but the magnificence with which the decemvirs honored his 
burial, prevented an immediate outbreak. But the troops 
were ready to rise in open mutiny upon the first provocation. 
Virginia. — In the army sent against the ^Equians, there 
was a well-known centurion, named Virginius. He had a 
beautiful daughter, Virginia, who went daily with her nurse 
to a school near the forum. Appius the decemvir, as he sat 
there to administer justice, noticed the maiden, and sought 
in her father's absence to get her into his power. He directed 
one Marcus Claudius, his client, to seize the girl in the street, 
and claim her as his slave. The cry of the nurse for help 
brought a crowd around them, and all went before the de- 
cemvir. In his presence, Marcus repeated the tale he had 
learned, asserting that Virginia was the child of one of his 

*The chief military rewards bestowed among the Romans were 
the following : 

Corona civica, given to any soldier who had saved the life of a 
Roman citizen in an engagement. This crown, though composed 
of oak leaves only, was considered the most honorable of all. 
Corona obsidiona/is, bestowed on those who delivered the Ro- 
mans or their allies from a siege. It was made of the grass which 
grew on the spot. Corona tuuratis, awarded to him who first 
scaled the walls of a city in a general assault. Its form resembled 
the figure of a wall. Corona vallaris or castrensis, the reward of 
him who had first forced the enemy's intrenchments. Corona 
nava/is, set round with figures of the beaks of ships, and bestowed 
on such as had signalized their valor in a naval engagement. In 
fine, Corona triumphalis, made with wreaths of laurel, and 
awarded to the general who had gained a signal victory. To him 
also, was reserved the triumph, or solemn entry into Rome in a 
chariot magnificently ornamented, and at the head of his victo- 
rious army. Among other rewards for occasions different from 
those already mentioned, were the torques, a gold or silver collar, 
and the a rmitta, a bracelet, worn on the left arm. 



B. C. 451. THE DECEMVIKATE. 359 

female slaves, and had been imposed upon Virginius by his 
wife, who was childless. This he offered to prove to, Vir- 
ginias so soon as the latter returned to Rome, and he mean- 
while demanded the custody of the maiden. The attitude 
of the people was so menacing-, that Appius was forced to 
defer judgment till next morning ; but he declared that then, 
whether Virginius appeared or not, he should know how to 
maintain the law. Straightway two friends of the family 
hurried to the camp, and informed Virginins of his daughter's 
situation. I Ie at once obtained a leave of absence, and for- 
tunately had already set out for Rome, when a messenger 
arrived from Appius requesting that he should be detained 
with the army. Early next morning, Virginins and his 
daughter came into the forum with their garments rent. 
Supported by his friends, he appealed to the law and to 
testimony. But, intent upon his purpose, Appius ordered 
Virginia to be given up to his accomplice, at the same time 
commanding his lictors and a large body of his adherents, 
whom he had summoned around him, to disperse the people. 
The unhappy father, seeing no means to deliver his daughter, 
snatched a knife from a butcher's stall close by, and stabbed 
her to the heart. Brandishing the reeking weapon, he rushed 
to the gate of the city, and then hurried to the camp. 

The Valerian and Horatian Laws (b. c. 448). — The 
comrades of Virginius espoused his cause. The other army 
did the same ; and the soldiers, joined by the mass of the 
plebeians, withdrew to the Sacred Mount. As once before, 
this course produced its effect. The decemvirs speedily re- 
linquished the power ; and two of the number, Valerius and 
Horatius, opening negotiations with the plebeians, promised 
the restoration of the tribunate and the right of appeal. 
The comitia were held and tribunes* were elected for the 
plebeians, while Valerius and Horatius f were raised to the 
consulship. The new consuls procured a solemn confirma- 
tion l of the old law of Valerius Publicola, granting to every 
citizen the right of appeal against the sentence of the supreme 

"*Some maintain that /<?« were for the first time chosen on this 
occasion. 

| It is said that they were the first Roman magistrates who ac- 
tually bore the title of consuls, the chief officers of the state be- 
ing previously called pretors. 

Jit received a third solemn confirmation in 300 B. C. The ver- 
dict of the people was final. Capital punishment could be inllicted 
only by the comitia of the centuries. 



360 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IV. 

magistrate. On their proposal, it was also enacted that the 
plebiscita, or resolutions passed in the comitia tributa, should 
be binding alike on both orders of the state ; and, finally, 
the persons of the ediles and other plebeian magistrates 
were declared equally sacred with those of the tribunes. 

Intermarriage Law (b. c. 445). — At an early period, 
a legal sanction had been given to marriages between 
patricians and plebeians ; but with the proviso that the child- 
ren should follow the fortunes of the inferior parent. By 
the eleventh table of the second decemvirs, such unions were 
wholly prohibited. But soon after the abolition of the 
decemvirate, the plebeians obtained by the Canuleian law 
(b. c. 445) not only the repeal of this oppressive enactment, 
but the full right of intermarriage. 

The Consular Tribunes (b. c. 444-366). — An attempt 
made, at this time also, to throw open the consulship to the 
plebeians, was not equally successful. A compromise, 
however, was effected (b. c. 444),* whereby the annual con- 
suls might be replaced by a board of consular or military 
tribunes, to be chosen from either order. But the functions 
of these tribunes, were to be confined to the command of 
armies in the field and the military administration at home, 
the other consular duties being entrusted to two new pa- 
trician magistrates, called censors. Though, by law, the 
new tribunes might be chosen equally from either order, yet 
such was the influence of the patricians in the comitia of 
the centuries, that, in forty years, only three plebeians were 
actually raised to that dignity ; and, during this interval, the 
comitia not unfrequently, instead of military tribunes, chose 
two consuls as of old. Finally, towards 366 b. c, the ancient 
custom of electing annually two consuls became again the 
invariable rule. 

The Censors originally held office for a period of five 
years. Soon, their tenure was limited to 1 8 months, though 
they continued to be appointed only once in five years. 
Many and important were the duties of this new magistracy. 
The censors took the census, or register of the citizens and 
their property, and drew up accordingly the classes and the 
centuries. They made the lists of the knights, or equites> 
and filled up all vacancies in the senate. f They exercised 

* Instead of b. c. 444, some say b. c. 420. 

f From those who had held the questorship, or any higher magis- 
tracy. 



B. C. 444. THE MILITARY TRIBUNATE. -26 j 

a superintendence over the whole public and private life of 
the citizens, visiting with their censure not only offences 
against the laws, but everything opposed to the old Roman 
character and habit, such as living in celibacy, extravagance, 
and luxury. They might degrade citizens to a lower rank, 
expel senators from the senate, deprive the knights of their 
horses, and exclude individuals from all political rights. 
The censors, also, under the senate, controlled the finances ;* 
and with the ediles, as their subordinates, they had the 
superintendence of the public buildings, roads, and aque- 
ducts. Hence we find that many of the great roads, such as 
the Via Flaminia, were made by the censors. 

Sp. Melius. — In the year 440 b. c, there was a great 
famine at Rome. Sp. Maelius, one of the richest plebeian 
knights, expended his fortune in buying up corn, which he 
sold to the poor at a small price, or distributed among them 
gratuitously. This generous conduct gave him considerable 
popularity, and the patricians pretended to fear that he was 
aiming at kingly power. To ward off the supposed dan- 
ger, they appointed the aged Cincinnatus dictator. He 
nominated Servilius Aha! a his master of the horse. During 
the night, the Capitol and all the posts were garrisoned by 
the patricians; and, in the morning, the dictator, appearing 
in the forum with a numerous escort, summoned Maelius 
before his tribunal. But, seeing the fate which awaited him, 
Maelius refused to go, whereupon Ahala rushed into the 
crowd, and struck him dead upon the spot (b. c. 439). His 
property was confiscated, and his house was levelled to the 
ground. The deed of Ahala is lauded by Cicero, but was 
regarded by the plebeians, at the time, as an act of murder. 
Ahala was afterward brought to trial, and only escaped 
death by voluntary exile. 

Aulus Postumius, Dictator. — In 431 b. c, a great 
effort was made by the ^Equians and Volscians to conquer 
Rome. Aulus Postumius was named dictator; and, at 
Mount Algidus, gained a splendid victory over them. An 
incident of this campaign illustrates the severity of Roman 
discipline. During the manoeuvres, the dictator's son left 
the post assigned to him, and engaged the enemy. He 

* At a later period, they let out the taxes of the provinces to the 
highest bidders for the space of a lustrum, or five years. Those 
who thus farmed the public revenue — the richest citizens, i. e. the 
equites y were called publica?ii. 

31 



362 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IV. 

returned victorious ; but his inexorable father forthwith sent 
him to execution for acting contrary to orders. 

Plebeian Questors (b. c. 421). — Slowly but surely, 
amidst internal dissensions and external wars, were the ple- 
beians rising to an equality with the higher order. In 421 
B. C, the questorship was thrown open to them, and thus 
they became eligible for the senate. 

Questorship. — The questors were the paymasters of 
the state. It was their duty to receive the revenues, and to 
make all the necessary payments for the military and civil 
services. They also registered the laws passed by the sen- 
ate. It was their business to entertain envoys from foreign 
states, and they had the charge of all the public funerals. 
There were originally but two questors. About this time, 
the number was increased to four, two of whom — the urban 
questors — continued to remain at Rome, as secretaries of the 
treasury, whilst the other two, sometimes called military 
questors, followed the army in quality of adjutants or pay- 
masters to the troops. The number of the military, or non- 
urban, questors was constantly increased with the conquests 
of the republic. Every consul or pretor who conducted a 
war or governed a province, was attended by one of these 
magistrates. 



CHAPTER V. 

Capture of Veii — Gaulish Inroads — The Licinian Rogations. 

b. c. 406-365. 

Veil — Twelve miles north of the Tiber, on a steep moun- 
tain spur, stood the Etruscan city of Veii. Strongly fortified 
and surpassing Rome in the grandeur of its buildings, Veii, 
besides, was rich with the products of industry and art. 
With this powerful rival, Rome had often been engaged in 
hostilities. Now it was determined to carry on against it a 
war of extermination. 

Siege and Capture of Veii (b. c. 406-396). — In 406 
B. C, a siege was begun comparable to that of Troy. Year 
after year, it continued with varying success, The position of 



B.C. 406-396. SIEGE OF VEIL ^6% 

Veii made it impossible to blockade it completely, and to 
reduce it by famine. The Romans, however, clung tena- 
ciously to their purpose, and maintained the siege at all sea- 
sons of the year. This was an entirely new feature in Roman 
warfare, and compelled them to adopt a most important 
change in their military system. Up to this time, the 
soldiers had fought without pay, and had even supplied 
themselves with food, always returning home for the harvest. 
Now, however, that they were required to remain under the 
standard for several years in succession, they could no longer 
maintain themselves. The government perceived the neces- 
sity, and yielded to it. Pay was granted to the troops from 
the public treasury. 

While the siege was proceeding, some alarm was excited 
at Rome by an unaccountable rise of the Alban lake, which 
overflowed its banks. The portent was considered so grave, 
that an embassy was sent to inquire its meaning from the 
oracle of the Delphian Apollo. The reply was that, so long 
as the Alban lake continued to overflow, Veii could not be 
taken. The Romans therefore set to work, and cut a tunnel* 
through the mountain side, by which the superabundant 
water was drained off. They then confidently looked for 
the conquest of their stubborn enemy. The command of 
the legions was now intrusted to M. Furius Camillus, as die 
tator. He infused a new spirit into the siege ; and, seeing 
no prospect of storming the strong defences of the city, he 
drove a mine beneath them, which was to have its outlet in 
the temple of Juno, the guardian deity of Veii. When the 
mine was finished, the attention of the inhabitants was di- 
verted by feigned assaults against the walls. Camillus, 
meanwhile, with a chosen band led the way into the mine. As 
he stood beneath the temple of Juno, he heard the sooth- 
sayer declare to the king of the Veientines, that whoever 
should complete the sacrifice he was offering, would be the 
conqueror. Thereupon the Romans burst forth, and seized 
the flesh of the victim, which Camillus offered up. The 
soldiers who guarded the walls, were thus taken in the rear; 
the gates were thrown open, and the city was soon filled 
with Romans. The booty was immense ; and the few citizens 
who escaped the sword, were sold as slaves. In a gilded 

* The tunnel, which to this day continues to serve its original 
purpose, is about 6,000 feet long. 



364 ANCIENT ROME. ChApt. V. 

chariot drawn by four white horses, himself splendidly 
arrayed, Camillus passed up the Sacred Way ( Via Sacra) 
to the Capitol. Rome had never yet seen so magnificent a 
triumph. The territory of Veii was divided among the 
plebeians, seven jug-era, equal to five acres, of land being 
granted to all that desired it. A short time before, similar 
colonies of Roman plebeians had been planted at Ardea, 
Velitrae, and Labicum. 

Camillus Conquers Falerii (b. c. 394).-— Falerii, one 
of the Etruscan cities which had assisted Veii, soon beheld 
itself besieged in turn. It is related, that, when Camillus lay 
before it, a Falerian schoolmaster treacherously conducted 
the sons of the noblest families into the Roman camp, but 
that Camillus, scorning the baseness of the man, ordered his 
arms to be tied behind him, and the boys to flog him back 
into the town ; whereupon the besieged, moved by gratitude, 
opened their gates to the Romans. 

Exile of Camillus (b. c. 391).— Camillus, when en- 
gaged in the siege of Veii, had vowed to consecrate to the 
Pythian Apollo a tithe of the spoil. To fulfill this vow, he 
required every man to refund a tenth of the booty* taken at 
Veii, and thereby incurred the hatred of the plebeians. His 
haughty demeanor towards the lower order increasing their 
resentment, the tribunes impeached him as guilty of appro- 
priating the great bronze gates of Veii. Seeing that his con- 
demnation was certain, Camillus went into exile, praying, as 
he left Rome, that the republic might soon have cause to re- 
gret him — a wish but too soon and too completely fulfilled. 

Battle of the Allia (b. c. 390). — Numerous Gallic 
hordes had, in the time of the Tarquins, crossed the Alps, 
and taken possession of the rich valley of the Po,f whence 
they dislodged the Etruscans. But now, under the leader- 
ship of Brennus, the Gauls passed the line of the Apennines, 

*The various objects were exchanged for gold, which, in the 
form of a rich golden bowl, was duly sent to Delphi. 

f Henceforth, they formed the main population of the whole 
basin of the Po, which, in consequence was called by the Romans 
Gallia Cisalpina, or Gaul on this (the Roman) side of the Alps. 
Till the time of the empire, the Romans never included the plain 
of the Po in Italy. The westernmost portion of this plain was 
peopled by Ligurian tribes, and was therefore called Liguria, 
while its eastern extremity was inhabited, as it still is, by the Ve- 
netians, and named as now Venetia. 



B. C. 390-389. GAULISH INROADS. 365 

spread desolation through Central Italy, and laid siege to 
Clusium, the powerful Etruscan city over which Lars Porse- 
na once reigned. The Clusians applied to Rome for aid. 
The senate dispatched three ambassadors, sons of the chief 
pontiff, Fabius Ambustus, to warn the barbarians not to 
touch an ally of Rome. Failing to produce any effect, the 
envoys most unwisely took part with the Etruscans in the 
defence of their city, and one of them slew a Gallic captain. 
Brennus, thereupon, sent to Rome to demand satisfaction. 
The Roman people not only refused to apologize, but elected 
the three Fabii as military tribunes for the following year. 
To avenge this insult, the Gauls, raising the siege of Clu- 
sium, at once hastened towards Rome. About eleven miles 
from the city, they met the Roman army 40,000 strong, 
drawn up upon the Allia, and ready to oppose their ad- 
vance. Brennus fiercely attacked them, and threw them into 
confusion. A general panic seized the Romans ; they turned 
and fled. Some escaped across the Tiber to Veii, and a few 
reached Rome, but the greater number were slain. 

Sack of Rome. — Panic-stricken, the inhabitants of Rome 
fled with such of their property as they could carry, some to 
Veii, others to the nearest cities of Latium. The flamen of 
Quirinus, and the Vestal virgins with the sacred fire, retired 
to Caere. But a handful of resolute patricians and the 
younger senators, quickly collecting their chief treasures 
and a supply of provisions, withdrew to the Capitol, resolved 
to defend, to their last breath, the citadel of their nation and 
the shrines of their gods, while the aged senators, who had 
been consuls or censors and could no longer fight, devoting 
themselves as so many victims for their country, sat down 
in the forum on their curule thrones, awaiting death. 

When the Gauls entered the city, they found it desolate 
and death-like. They marched on without seeing a human 
being, till they came to the forum. Here, beholding the 
aged forms of the senators, sitting immovable, they gazed in 
awe at the strange sight, until one of them ventured to go up 
to M. Papirius, and stroke his white beard. With his ivory 
sceptre, the old man struck the barbarian, whereupon the 
barbarian slew him, and in an instant the Gauls massacred 
the whole august assembly. Rome was now given up to 
pillage ; and, with the exception of a few houses on the 
Palatine, which the chiefs reserved for themselves, the whole 
city was burnt to the ground. 



366 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. V. 

Siege of the Capitol. — The Capitol was the next object 
of attack. Leading to this was but one steep way, and the 
assaults were therefore easily repelled. The siege in conse- 
quence became a blockade, and the Gauls for seven months 
remained encamped among the ruins of Rome. Meanwhile, 
the scattered Romans took courage. Collecting at Veii, 
they resolved to recall Camillus and appoint him dictator. 
Then Pontius Cominius, a daring youth, swam across the 
Tiber, scaled the Tarpeian rock, obtained the senate's 
approval to the appointment of Camillus, and returned safe to 
Veii. But, next day, some Gauls observed the traces of his 
steps, and in the dead of night climbed up the same way. 
The foremost had already reached the top, unnoticed by the 
sentinels and the dogs, when the cries of some geese* roused 
M. Manlius from sleep. He hurled down the Gaul who had 
clambered up, and gave the alarm. The Capitol was thus 
saved, and Manlius was honored with the proud title of 
Capitolinus. 

Withdrawal of the Gauls. — Still no help came ; and 
the Gauls remaining, famine compelled the defenders to 
capitulate. The Romans agreed to pay the barbarians iooo 
pounds of gold, on condition of their quitting the city and the 
territory. In computing the amount, Brennus used false 
weights ; and, when the Romans complained, the Gallic 
chief cast his heavy sword into the scales, exclaiming, " Woe 
to the vanquished!"'!" As Livy tells the story, it was at 
this moment that Camillus with his troops appeared upon the 
scene ; and, forcing the barbarians to restore all the gold, 
drove them defeated beyond the territory of Rome. Polybius 
and Justin, however, assure us that the Gauls, having exacted 
large sums, with the money in their possession returned 
safely to their homes. 

Rebuilding of the Citv. — When the Romans returned 
to the heap of ruins which was once their city, their hearts 
sank within them. In their despair the people would fain 
have quitted the spot for ever, and removed to Veii. But 
Camillus and the patricians strongly urged them not to 
abandon the homes of their fathers, and they were at length 
persuaded to remain. The state granted bricks, and stones 
were fetched from the dismantled Veii. Within a year, the 

*These geese were sacred to Juno, and had been spared notwith- 
standing the gnawings of hunger. 
fVae victis. 



B, C. 390-389. GAULISH INROADS. 367 

city rose from its ashes ; but, down to the great fire of Nero, it 
continued to show evident traces of the haste and irregularity 
with which it had been rebuilt. 

Distress at Rome. — As in the case of the war with 
Porsena so now after the sack of Rome by the Gauls, dis- 
tress and embarrassment fell upon the poorer classes. They 
had lost their all — houses, barns, implements of agriculture ; 
and, to make matters worse, the government imposed addi- 
tional taxation, in order to replace the gold paid to Brennus. 
Debt and insolvency followed. The slave barracks were 
filled with captives, and the people once more cried out 
against the harshness of the usurers. Under these circum- 
stances, Marcus Manlius Capitolinus came forward as the 
champion of the poor, and out of his personal means he paid 
the debts of 400 prisoners. 

Fate of Manlius (b. c. 384). — The patricians, alarmed 
at his growing popularity, renewed against Manlius the 
charge once preferred against Cassius — that he was aiming 
at royal power. They appointed Cossus dictator. Manlius 
was by his order brought to trial before the comitia of 
the centuries. In his defence, he proudly showed the spoils 
of 30 warriors whom he had slain, the 40 military distinctions 
which he had won in battle, and the innumerable scars upon 
his breast, after which, turning toward the Capitol, he prayed 
the immortal gods to remember the man who had saved 
their temple. Seeing that after such an appeal he could not 
be condemned, his enemies contrived to break up the assem- 
bly. Shortly afterward Manlius was arraigned on the same 
charges, before the comitia of the curies. Here he was at 
once condemned, and was hurled from the Tarpeian Rock. 

The Licinian Rogations* (b. 0.377-367)0 — In 376 b. c, 
the tribunes of the people, C. Licinius Stolo and L. Sex- 
tius, proposed three laws — known as the Licinian rogations, 
which were intended to lessen the double grievance of pov- 
erty and political equality, under which the plebeians were 
still groaning. One of these bills procured immediate relief 
for debtors, by deducting from the principal the interest 
already paid on borrowed money. A second aimed at pre- 
venting the recurrence of extreme indigence, by multiplying 
the number of small freeholders, and assuring to the pie- 

*A rogatio was a measure submitted to the assembly of the 
people, and only became a law — lex when enacted by them. 



368 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. V. 

beians the right of occupying the public lands.' For it 
allowed small lots of five acres to the poor citizens, and it 
forbade any one of the rich to occupy more than 3 20 acres of 
the public domain, or to feed on the public pastures more 
than 200 head of large and 500 of small cattle ; moreover, the 
payment of the annual tithe or rent, for the use of the state 
lands, was to be rigidly enforced. The third 7 r ogation was, 
that in future two consuls should be annually elected, as of 
old, and that one of the two must be a plebeian. 

These reforms, naturally enough, were violently opposed by 
the patricians. The two tribunes retaliated by interposing 
their veto, and prevented the comitia of the centuries from 
electing any magistrates for the next year. Hence no 
consuls, military tribunes, censors, or questors, could be 
appointed. The tribunes of the plebs and the ediles, who 
were elected by the comitia of the tribes, were the only 
magistrates in the city. This state of things lasted five years, 
Licinius and Sextius being reelected annually, and maintain- 
ing the same tactics in reference to the elections at the comi- 
tia of the centuries. In the fifth year, however, in conse- 
quence of a war with the Latins, they allowed the appoint- 
ment of military tribunes. But so far were they from abating 
any of their demands, that to their former rogations they 
now added another : That the care of the Sibylline books, 
instead of being intrusted to two patricians only, should be 
given to ten citizens, half of whom should be plebeians. 

L. Sextius, First Plebeian Consul (b. c. 366). — Five 
years more did the struggle last ; but the firmness of the 
tribunes at length prevailed. In 367 b. C, the Licinian roga- 
tions became law, and L. Sextius was elected the first 
plebeian consul. By the Roman constitution, the consuls, 
after being elected by the comitia centuriata, received the 
i?nperium i or sovereign military power, from the comitia 
curiata. The patricians thus were able to nullify the elec- 
tion, by refusing the imperium. This they denied to Sextius ; 
and they made Camillus dictator to support them in this new 
struggle. The aged hero, however, persuaded the ruling 
class to accept what was inevitable. A compromise was 
effected. Sextius received the imperium ; but the judicial 
duties were taken away from the consuls, and given to a 
new magistrate who was to be of patrician rank— the pretor. 
The erection of a temple to the goddess Concord, commem- 
orated the close of a long era of civil discord. 



B. C. 365. WARS WITH THE GAULS. 369 

The Pretorship (b. c. 366). — The pretors chief duty 
was the administration of justice. His it was to declare the 
law and preside at the tribunal. In token of his dignity, he 
was attended by six lictors. When both the consuls were 
absent on military duties, he held supreme authority in the 
city. — In B. c. 246, two pretors began to be appointed. 
One of them, the pretor urbanus, administered the law between 
citizen and citizen; the pretor peregrinus settled all cases in 
which persons of foreign origin were concerned. When 
Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain, became territories of the state, four 
new pretors were created to govern those provinces. In Cic- 
ero's time the number of pretors was eight. 

Death of Camillus (b. c. 365). — The year 365 b. c 
witnessed the death of Camillus, the greatest of all the heroes 
of Roman story, till we come to Julius Caesar. He fell vic- 
tim to the pestilence, which, in that year, visited the city for 
the sixth time since the abolition of monarchy. On the 
occasion of this pestilence, stage plays were now first intro- 
duced into Rome from Etruria. 

Mettus Curtius. — To this epoch also is referred the 
romantic story of Mettus Curtius. A deep chasm had 
opened in the middle of the forum, and such a portent 
inspired general fear of some impending calamity. What 
should be done to appease the wrath of the gods ? It was 
announced that the chasm would never close, until it had 
received the most precious thing in Rome. Gold and jew- 
els were in vain cast in. Then Mettus Curtius came forth, 
fully armed and mounted on his war-horse. "Rome," said 
he, "holds nothing of greater value than arms and valor." 
So saying, he spurred his horse, and devoting himself to his 
country and to the gods, plunged out of sight into the gulf. 
With this offering the gods were satisfied, and the chasm 
closed up. 



CHAPTER VI. 

Wars with the Gauls, the Samnites, and the Latins. 
— The Roman Democracy. — b. c. 365-287. 

Gallic Tumult. — The Gauls, after their first retreat from 
Rome, did not fail to return and renew their attacks upon 



37° 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. VI. 



the republic. Furious as were their terrible assaults, the 
Romans seldom failed to resist them. On account of their 
size and strength, however, and their former sacking of 
the city, the Romans regarded them with peculiar dread ; 
and the appearance of the Gauls in the neighborhood was 
the signal, not so much for a war as for a ' Gallic tumult/ 
when every citizen was called to arms, and the whole nation 
rushed in a mass to the rescue. 

Manlius Torquatus (b. c. 361). — On one occasion, 
the Gauls were facing a Roman army on the Anio, when a 
gigantic barbarian advanced upon the bridge, and offered to 
light any Roman champion. Manlius, by permission of his 
general, accepted the challenge, slew the giant, and took 
from the dead body the gold chain (torquis) which the Gaul 
wore around his neck. For this he received the surname of 
Torquatus, which he handed down to his descendants. 

Valerius Corvus (b. c. 349). — In b. c. 349, another 
distinguished Roman family won its surname from a single 
combat with a Gaul. Here again a Gallic warrior of gigan- 
tic size had insultingly challenged the Romans. This time, 
M. Valerius advanced to oppose him. He was aided in the 
struggle, we are told, by a huge crow, which struck out 
fiercely at the Gaul with beak and claws and wings. Thus 
the Roman was enabled to slay his antagonist, and in con- 
sequence was called Corvus (the raven). 

The Latin League.— For some time, the Gauls main- 
tained themselves among the Alban hills. Their presence 
broke up the confederation of Latin towns which Rome had 
long held in alliance, and also encouraged the Hernici, the 
Aurunci, the Etruscans of Caere and Tarquinii, and the 
Volscians of Privernum, all ancient foes of the republic, to 
renew their attacks. From these contests, however, Rome 
emerged triumphant, and the Latin League was renewed. 

Samnites at Capua. — The time had now arrived when 
the power of Rome was to assert itself beyond the bounds of 
Latium, and new enemies were to be encountered. The 
highlands of Central and Southern Italy were, at this time, 
occupied by the great Sabellian race, of which an offshoot, 
under the name of Sabines, had largely contributed to form 
the Roman people itself. Farther to the south, the same 
race were known by the kindred name of Samnites. A body 
of these mountaineers, descending from their fastnesses, had 
some time before, seized upon the fertile plains of Campania, 



B. C. 331-349. THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR. 371 

and established themselves, as a class of patrician rulers, in 
the luxurious city of Capua. They were soon estranged 
from their kinsmen, who still dwelt among the hills; and a 
quarrel breaking out between the Samnites and the Capuans, 
the latter appealed to Rome for aid. 

First Samnite War (b. c. 343-341). — The Romans had, 
only a few years before, concluded an alliance with the Sam- 
nites. But the bait of the richest city and the most fertile 
soil in Italy, was irresistible ; and they resolved to comply 
with the request of the Capuans. Thus began the Samnite 
wars, which, with a few intervals of peace, lasted 53 years. 
Two consular armies were sent against the Samnites, who 
suffered defeat in three decisive encounters. But, at this 
juncture, difficulties arose for the Roman government, appar- 
ently from the prospect of valuable lands to be divided 
among the conquerors. During the winter, a mutiny broke 
out in their army at Capua, and the discontented soldiers 
marched in a body to Rome. Valerius Corvus, appointed 
dictator, led troops against them ; but his levies, instead of 
fighting, fraternized with the mutineers. 

Concessions to the Plebeians (b. c. 341-339). — The 
government was forced to submit to the people in arms. 
In 341 b. c, on the motion of the tribune Genucius, a series 
of laws were passed for the relief of debtors, the redress of 
military grievances, and the regulation of consular elections ; 
and it was enacted that both consuls might henceforth be 
plebeians. Two years later, under the dictatorship of Publi- 
lius Philo, himself a plebeian, fresh ordinances abridged still 
further the privileges of the patricians. By the Publilian 
laws, it was decreed that the pretors might be plebeians; 
that one of the censors must be a plebeian ; and that the 
plebiscita,) or decisions agreed to at the comitia of the tribes, 
were binding on all the citizens, whether or not they were 
sanctioned by the senate. 

The Plebiscita — This last clause seems to have been 
little more than a reenactment of one of the Valerian and 
Horatian laws. It must not be supposed that the influence 
of the senate was destroyed by this measure. In practice, 
this particular law was rarely put in force. But, in case of 
dead-lock between the two assemblies, it became a constitu- 
tional principle that the senate must yield. That the patri- 
cians struggled hard to evade the new law, can hardly be a 
matter of doubt ; and, in 286 b. C, it had to be enacted 



372 



ANCIENT ROME Chapt. VI. 



again by the dictator Q. Hortensius, when the last secession 
of the plebeians took place. In Roman writers, the Lex 
Hortensia is always referred to, as that which gave to plebis- 
cita the full power of laws binding upon the whole nation. 
By it the strife between patricians and plebeians was at 
length laid to rest. 

Demands of the Latins. — The Latins, as allies of the 
Romans, had fought by their side throughout the Samnite 
war. But they felt that, with the increasing power of Rome, 
they were gradually descending from the position of allies 
to that of mere subjects. They, therefore, sent two pretors 
— their chief magistrates, to demand their incorporation into 
the Roman state, with an equal share in the offices of gov- 
ernment. The senate met in the temple of Jupiter, on the 
Capitoline hill, to receive the Latin deputation. After their 
proposals were heard, the presiding consul, T. Manlius Tor- 
quatus, the same that had slain the Gaul, declared that, if 
the republic should cowardly yield to these demands, he 
would come into the senate-house, sword in hand, and cut 
down the first Latin he saw there. The tale goes on to state 
that, in the discussion which followed, when both parties 
were excited by anger, one of the Latin pretors defied the 
Roman Jupiter: that, thereupon, an awful peal of thunder 
shook the building; and that, as the impious man 
hurried down the steps from the temple, he fell from top to 
bottom, and lay there a corpse. 

The Latin War (b. c. 340-338). — War was now de- 
clared, and the most vigorous efforts were put forth on both 
sides. The Latins secured the assistance of the Volscians of An- 
tium and Privernum, as well as that of the Campanians them- 
selves, who feared that the Romans would confiscate their ter- 
ritory. The latter made an alliance with the Samnites, whom 
they had just defeated ; and, marching through their mountain 
country, met the Latin legions in Campania. The two con- 
suls, T. Manlius Torquatus and P. Decius Mus, aware of the 
bravery of their opponents and deeming no precaution too 
great in the present emergency, forbade any Roman to fight 
in single combat with a Latin, on pain of death. But the 
son of Torquatus, provoked by the insult of a Tusculan 
officer, accepted his challenge, slew his antagonist, and 
carried the bloody spoils in triumph to his father. Instead 
of the praise he expected, the consul condemned him to 
death for breach of discipline, and the unhappy youth 



P. C. 33S. SUBJUGATION OF LATIUM. 373 

was beheaded by the lictor in the presence of the whole 
army. 

Self-Devotion of Decius. — The decisive battle of the 
campaign was fought at the foot of Mount Vesuvius. The 
night before the conflict, the Roman consuls had been warned 
in a dream, that, in the impending combat, the army was 
doomed to perish on one side, the general on the other. 
They agreed that the one whose wing first began to waver, 
should solemnly devote himself to death. It fell to the lot 
of Decius to fulfil this vow. He repeated, after the chief 
pontiff, the solemn form of devotion, and then, rushing into 
the serried ranks of the enemy, by his own death won the 
victory for his countrymen. 

Subjugation of Latium (b. c. 338). — After their defeat 
near Mount Vesuvius, the Latins rallied once more, but 
were again defeated. They then betook themselves to their 
fenced cities, and the war henceforth consisted in a series of 
sieges, in which the Romans reduced the strong places of 
Latium one by one. „ At Antium, they captured the enemy's 
ships, which had long been accustomed to prey upon Roman 
commerce. The brazen beaks of these ships were cut off, 
and fixed to the orator's platform in the forum, which thence 
acquired the name of the rostra. 

Settlement of Latium. — This war gave to Rome the 
entire control of Latium. Of all the Latin cities, only Tibur 
and Praeneste retained their own laws and magistrates with 
a nominal independence. Of the remainder, some, while 
keeping their lands and usages, were placed under a Roman 
prefect ; others were occupied, as colonies, by discharged 
Roman soldiers of the plebeian order ; others,* in fine, were 
incorporated to the republic. The inhabitants of these last 
received the Roman franchise ; most of the rest were 
admitted only to a kind of inferior citizenship, with rights of 
commerce and intermarriage, but without the suffrage. This 
franchise came to be known as the jus Latii, and was sub- 
sequently extended to other conquered nations. The Latin 
war brought a large accession to the public domainf and 

*As Tusculum and Lanuvium. Many distinguished Romans 
sprung from these Latin towns. 

flndividual Romans quickly became owners of large estates 
throughout the newly acquired territory, and the frontier of the 
ager Romanus was pushed as far south as Capua and the liver 
Volturnus. 



374 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. VI. 

to the state fresh revenues. For the Latins, henceforth, con- 
tributed their share to the public treasury. They might, 
also, at the will of the consuls, be enrolled in the Roman 
armies. TO prevent the Latin towns from uniting again into 
a confederation, all general assemblies were prohibited ; and 
the inhabitants of one city were not allowed to marry, or 
make a legal contract of bargain or sale,* with those of 
another. 

Origin of the Second Samnite War (b. c. 327). — 
The subjugation of Latium was followed by fresh successes 
for the Romans. One of their most important conquests, at 
this period, was that of the Volscian town of Privernum. This 
city fell into their power B. c. 329 ; and from this time the Vol- 
scians, so long the formidable enemies of Rome, disappear as 
an independent nation. Such increase of power could not but 
awake the jealousy of the Samnites. When, therefore, 
they saw the Romans interfere in the civil discords of the 
Greek cities of Palaeopolis and Neapolis,f fearing lest the 
whole of Campania might soon be absorbed by Rome, they 
threw garrisons into those towns to aid the popular party 
against the common enemy. Such was the origin of the 
second Samnite war. 

The First Proconsul. — In b. c. 327, the Romans sent 
the consul Q. Publilius Philo to reduce Palaeopolis and 
Neapolis to subjection. This general encamped between the 
two cities ; and, as he did not succeed in taking them before 
his consulship expired, he was continued in the command 
with the title of proconsul. J The precedent first set in this 
instance, was often followed, in after times, when the Roman 
armies were quartered in distant provinces, or engaged in 
conquests of many years' duration. At the beginning of 
B. c. 326, Palaeopolis was taken; and Neapolis only escaped 
the same fate by concluding an alliance with the Romans. 
The latter had, meanwhile, gained to their side the Lucan- 
ians and Apulians, as well as the Marsians and Pelignians, 

* According to the Roman expression, the jus connubii and the 
jus commercii were forbidden. 

fBoth were colpnies of Cumse, and were situated only 5 miles 
from each other. The modern Naples occupies the site of Neapolis 
(the new city) ; the position of Palaeopolis (the old city) is uncertain. 

JA recent enactment forbade the reelection of a consul during 
the next ten years. As the services of Philo could not be dispensed 
v/ith, the difficulty was overcome by the creation of the proco?isul- 
ship. 



E. C. 327-290. THE SECOND SAMNITE WAR. 375 

thus completely isolating and surrounding their redoubtable 
foe, the brave mountaineers of Samnium. 

Papirius and Fabius (b. c. 324). — The third year of the 
war was signalized by a now familiar story, which illustrates 
the severity of Roman discipline. Papirius Censor, the dic- 
tator, being recalled to Rome by some defects in the auspices, 
left the army in charge of his master of the horse, Fabius 
Rullianus, but with strict injunctions not to engage the 
enemy. Fabius, however, seizing a favorable opportunity, 
attacked the Samnites, and won a great victory. But his 
success was no extenuation of his offence in the eyes of 
Papirius,who feared that the victory of the lieutenant would 
prove less destructive to the Samnites than to military disci- 
pline and the majesty of the dictatorship, if this contempt of 
authority remained unpunished. With all possible speed, 
therefore, Papirius hastened back to the camp, and ordered 
his lictors to seize Fabius and put him to death. The sol- 
diers, whom Fabius had led to victory, rose in his defence; 
and in the night he fled to Rome, to implore the protection 
of the senate and the people. But no power existed, not 
even that of the tribunes, which could bar the dictator's right 
to punish him ; and, as Fabius was stating his case to the 
assembled fathers, Papirius, determined to execute him, 
entered the senate-house followed by his lictors, and 
demanded the offender. At last however, overcome by 
entreaties, he yielded, and granted Fabius his life. 

The Caudine Forks (b. c. 321). — In b. c. 321, the 
Romans sustained one of their greatest reverses. The two 
consuls, who were marching into Samnium by the road from 
Capua to Beneventum, came to a place, near Caudium, 
where two narrow gorges, lying opposite, led into a plain shut 
in by two mountains. Thinking the Samnites to be far dis- 
ta'nt, the consuls advanced through the first defile into the 
plain beyond, but found the second gorge so . blocked up 
as to be quite impassable. At once they retraced their 
steps to the point of entrance ; but meanwhile the enemy 
had taken possession of this pass also. Thus hemmed in 
on all sides, the Romans, after making vain efforts to force 
their way through, were obliged to surrender at discretion. 
" Kill them," cried the aged Herennius to his son C. Pontius, 
the gallant leader of the Samnites ; " or else set them at 
liberty without conditions, and by such an act of generosity 
bind the Romans to a lasting peace." Pontius would do 



376 Ancient rome. chapt. vi. 

neither ; he granted the captives their lives, but required 
them to submit to an insult more odious than death. He 
set up two spears erect, with a third laid across ; and, under 
this simple yoke, as it was called, made the whole Roman 
army pass, stripped of their arms and a portion of their gar- 
ments. 600 knights were retained as hostages for the peace 
to which the consuls agreed in the name of the city ; the 
rest of the army ignominiously returned to Rome, and, en- 
tering it late at night, hastened to conceal themselves in their 
houses. 

Subjugation of Samnium (b. c. 290). — The Romans 
refused to ratify the peace of Caudium; and the consuls 
with all the officers who had sworn to it, were conducted 
back to Pontius by ^fetialis* After this envoy had delivered 
them to the Samnite chief, one of the consuls, Postumius, 
exclaimed, " I am now no longer a Roman, but a Samnite ;" 
then, turning round, he struck the herald with his foot, and 
called upon the Romans to avenge the insult, which they 
might reckon as a pretext for a righteous war. Pontius, of 
course, refused to accept the persons thus offered ; and, ex- 
cepting short intervals of truce, hostilities continued with re- 
doubled animosity. In 311, the Etruscans and Gauls, 
alarmed at the success of the Romans, joined in the contest, 
and thus seemed likely to turn the tide of victory in favor 
of the Samnites. But this increase of foes served only to 
render the triumph of the Romans more brilliant. After a 
last crushing defeat in B. c. 290, the Samnites sued for 
peace. 

Curius Dentatus. — It was left to the consul Curius 
Dentatus, who had terminated the w r ar, to settle the articles 
of the treaty. The deputies of the Samnites sought out his 
modest farm, and found him taking a frugal repast served 
upon a wooden dish. They offered him a large sum of 
money, to render him more favorable to their interests. 
" My poverty," he said to them, " has probably inspired you 
with the hope of bribing me ; but know that I deem it more 
glorious to command those who have gold than to possess 
it myself." 

Conquests in Etruria and Cisalpine Gaul. — Once 
more the Samnites tried to reassert their independence, but 
in vaift. As to their old northern allies, the Etruscans and 
the Gauls, they too, after fresh efforts, had to sue for peace. 
Military colonies, consisting each of two or three thousand 



B. C. 312-300. PROGRESS OF DEMOCRACY. 377 

veterans, were then planted by the Romans at Beneventum, 
in Samnium ; at Venusia, in Apulia ; at Piacentia, Cremona, 
and elsewhere, in Cisalpine Gaul. Thus was Roman do- 
minion securely established in Central Italy and in the 
north. 

Appius Claudius Cecus, the Censor (b. c. 312-31 i). 
— This remarkable man's censorship was marked by several 
important innovations. In revising the lists of the citizens,. 
Appius admitted unusual numbers of alien residents, and of 
freedmen or the descendants of freedmen, to the privileges 
of full citizenship. In accordance with the same policy, 
when filling vacancies in the senate, he elevated many per- 
sons of low birth, and even sons of freedmen, to the rank of 
senators. In the department of public works, Appius mani- 
fested no less enterprise. He spent vast sums, and employed 
thousands of workmen, on the construction of an aqueduct, 
and of the great Appian road,* which led past Aricia to the 
Liris and Campania. On the expiration of his term, Ap- 
pius, relying on the support of six of the tribunes, declined 
to resign his office,f that he might carry out the great works 
which he had begun. The patricians then sought to impeach 
him, but failed to obtain his condemnation. It was after- 
wards given out that Appius was, for this impious usurpa- 
tion, struck with blindness and his whole gens exterminated. 

Flavius Publishes the Forms of Legal Actions. — 
After the retirement of Appius from the censorship, his 
clerk, Cn. Flavius, who was a freedman's son, was elected 
edile. In his former post he had become familiar with the 
forms of Roman law, the knowledge of which had been al- 
ways jealously guarded by the old patrician houses as their 
own special craft and mystery. These forms Flavius now 
published to the world, together with a legal calendar; and, 
in so doing, he struck one more blow at the fast-waning 
privileges of the old aristocracy. Henceforth it was no 
longer necessary for the plebeian to resort to his noble 
patron for direction as to the conduct of actions at law. By 
Flavius's bold step, the tribunals were thrown open to all, 
and hidden tradition gave way to free and recorded instruc- 
tion. 

* This was the first of the great lines of communication which, 
in later times, extended from Rome to the extremities of Europe. 

f After his colleague had loyally resigned his post, Appius con- 
tinued to exercise the censorship another year and alone. 



37& ANCIENT ROME, ChapT. VlL 

The Ogulnian Law (b. c. 300). — The patricians still 
retained the control of the national religion. For, till now, 
the sacred offices of pontiffs and augurs might be entrusted 
only to patrician candidates. But, in B. c. 300, this last pre- 
rogative was also wrested from them by the Ogulnian law, 
which made the pontifical and augural functions accessible to 
the plebeians. These concessions, however, as yet put no * 
stop to the long - conflict between the two orders ; and, after 
the Samnite war, we hear once more of the lower class being 
oppressed by the burden of debt, of disputes about an 
agrarian law, and even a secession of the commons to the 
Janiculum. The quarrel, in this case, was composed by 
the dictator Hortensius ; and, as usual, resulted in a complete 
victory for the commons. 

The Hortensian Law (b. c. 287) established the gov- 
ernment of Rome on a thoroughly democratic footing. 
Nothing now remained to the comitia of the centuries, but the 
election of the consuls, pretors, and censors. All the other 
magistrates were elected by the comitia of the tribes, where 
birth and wealth had no privilege, and only heads were 
counted. The entire legislative power, and even the decision 
of such questions as peace or war, fell into the hands of the 
democratic assembly. 



CHAPTER VII. 

War with Pyrrhus and Subjugation of Southern Italy. — 

b. c. 281-272. 

Origin of the War with Tarentum (b. c. 281). — Ify- 
an ancient treaty made between Rome and Tarentum, it was 
stipulated that no Roman ships of war should pass the 
Lacinian promontory. But circumstances were now changed, 
and the senate determined no longer to be bound by this 
restriction. Accordingly, L. Valerius with ten small vessels 
ventured one day to sail towards the harbor of Tarentum. 
The people at that moment happened to be assembled in 
their theatre, which overlooked the sea. Deeming this open 
violation of the treaty a premeditated insult, they rushed 



B. C. 280-S74. WAR WITH fc^RRHUSi fflg 

down to the harbor, quickly manned some ships, and attack- 
ing the intruders gained an easy victory. 

Soon after this occurrence, an embassy arrived from 
Rome, headed by L. Postumius, who, with his colleagues, 
was introduced into the theatre, to state to the assembled 
people the demands of the Roman senate. He began to 
address them in Greek ; but his mistakes in the language 
were received with peals of laughter from the thoughtless 
multitude. Unable to obtain a hearing, Postumius was 
leaving the theatre, when a drunken buffoon sullied his toga 
in the most disgusting manner. Holding up the defiled 
garment before the mocking Tarentines, " This stain," said 
he, " shall be washed out in your blood." 

Pyrrhus. — Having thus dared the hostility of Rome, the 
Tarentines sought protection against her resentment from 
the chivalrous king of Epirus, the famous Pyrrhus, a cousin 
of Alexander of Macedon. Proud of his relationship with 
the great conqueror of the east, and ambitious to repro- 
duce in the west the feats of his illustrious kinsman, Pyrrhus 
readily acceded to the request of the Tarentines. He at once 
began extensive military preparations ; and, in the following 
spring, B. C. 280, he passed over to Italy with an army of 
20,000 foot and 3,000 horse, backed by the formidable array 
of 20 elephants. He had been made to believe that, upon 
his arrival, all the Italian Greeks, nay, all the nations of 
Southern Italy, would flock to his standard. Great, there- 
fore, was his surprise at the sluggishness of those most 
interested in the approaching struggle. Before he had 
fairly aroused the Tarentines and their allies, the Roman 
consul M. Valerius Lsevinus approached Tarentum, and in 
the neighborhood of Heraclea, challenged him to battle. 

Battle of Heraclea (b. c. 280). — In order to afford 
the allies time to bring in their contingents, Pyrrhus attempt- 
ed negotiation. He wrote to the consul, offering to arbi- 
trate between Rome and the Italian states. But Lsevinus 
made answer, that the Romans neither accepted him as an 
arbiter nor feared him as an enemy. The king of Epirus, 
though inferior in numbers to his opponent, was thus forced 
to fight. At the head of his cavalry, he distinguished him- 
self, as usual, by the most daring acts of valor. But the 
Romans bravely sustained the attack. Seven times did both 
armies advance, retreat, and return to the charge. At last, 
however, when Pyrrhus brought forward his elephants, 



380 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. VII. 

these huge animals so terrified the Romans that they took 
to flight, leaving their camp to the conqueror. They had 
lost 15,000 men, and the victors 13,000 — a disaster which 
the latter were less able to bear. 

Before the engagement, Pyrrhus had noticed with admira- 
tion the fine order of the Roman array. "In war, at any 
rate," he remarked, "these barbarians are not barbarous." 
When, after the fight, he saw the Roman dead lying upon 
the field with all their wounds in front, "If these were my 
soldiers," he exclaimed, "or if I were their general, we 
would conquer the world." Though his loss was not so con- 
siderable as that of the enemy ; yet, so many of his bravest 
Greeks had fallen, that, when congratulated upon his suc- 
cess, he sorrowfully replied: "Another such victory, and I 
must return to Epirus alone." 

Embassy of Cine as. — Being now fully aware of the diffi- 
culty of his enterprise, Pyrrhus resolved to avail himself of 
his victory to conclude, if possible, an advantageous peace. 
He sent his minister Cineas to Rome, demanding security 
for his Italian allies, and promising in return both to release 
his prisoners and to withdraw to his own kingdom. Cineas, 
whose persuasive eloquence was fortified with rich presents 
for the senators and their wives, was amazed to find his gold 
invariably refused, and his proposals of peace proudly 
rejected. On his return, he told Pyrrhus that the city was 
like a temple of gods, and the senate an assembly of kings. 

Embassy of Fabricius.— -During the winter, the Romans 
sent an embassy to Pyrrhus to negotiate the ransom or 
exchange of prisoners. At the head of this embassy was 
Fabricius, a fine specimen of the sturdy Roman character 
He cultivated his farm with his own hands ; and, like many 
other worthies of ancient Rome, was celebrated for his 
integrity. The gold and other presents which were pressed 
upon his acceptance by Pyrrhus, as pledge of friendship and 
hospitality, Fabricius steadily refused. Nor was his cool 
self-possession less remarkable. Pyrrhus, knowing that he 
had never seen an elephant, ordered the largest one in his 
possession to be hidden behind a curtain, in a place where 
they were to mqet. Then, as they conversed together, the 
curtain was suddenly drawn, and the elephant, waving his 
trunk over the head of Fabricius, made a frightful noise. 
But Fabricius, calmly remarked : "Your gold did not tempt 
me yesterday, nor has your beast frightened me to-day." 



B. C. 280-274. WAR WITH PYRRHUS. 38 1 

The object of the embassy failed. But, though Pyrrhus 
refused to exchange the prisoners, he conceived such an idea 
of Roman honor, that he allowed his captives to visit Rome 
on parole, to celebrate the Saturnalia. Nor was his trust 
misplaced. All the prisoners without exception returned 
into captivity to Tarentum. 

Battle of Asculum. — With the reappearance of spring, 
warlike operations were resumed, and a battle was fought 
near Asculum. The Romans were again worsted ; but, this 
time, they withdrew to their camp in good order, and lost 
not more than 6,000 men. Pyrrhus had to deplore the loss 
of half this number; but, as at Heraclea, the brunt of the 
action had fallen almost exclusively upon his faithful Epi- 
rots ; and the state of Greece, which this year was overrun by 
the Gauls, made it hopeless for him to expect any reinforce- 
ments from his kingdom. Being therefore unwilling to im- 
peril his remaining troops by another campaign with the 
Romans, he lent a ready ear to the invitations of the Greeks 
of Sicily, who begged his assistance against the Carthagi- 
nians. % 

Truce with Rome (b. c. 278).— An act of generosity on 
the part of the Roman commanders, hastened his departure 
from Italy. Fabricius was now consul. To him an un- 
known person brought a letter from the king's physician, 
who for a reward offered to remove Pyrrhus by poison. 
Fabricius, acting in concert with his colleague, at once ap- 
prized Pyrrhus of the treason. The grateful monarch, 
touched by this act, gave vent to his admiration, saying, "It 
were easier to turn the sun from its course, than Fabricius 
from the path of rectitude." That he might not be sur- 
passed in generosity, Pyrrhus sent Cineas to Rome with all 
the Roman prisoners without ransom and without conditions ; 
and the Romans, on their part, granted him a truce. 

Pyrrhus in Sicily (b. c. 278-276). — In Sicily, Pyrrhus 
first met with brilliant success, and stripped the Carthagini- 
ans of whatever they possessed there, except the strong city 
of Lilybseum. But, soon, the fickle Greeks began to form 
cabals and plots against him. This led to retaliation on his 
part, and he became as anxious to abandon the island as he 
had been before to leave Italy. Accordingly, on the request 
of his Italian allies, he returned to Tarentum. 

Despondency of Pyrrhus. — The troops of Pyrrhus, 
now mostly Italian mercenaries, were no longer of the same 



382 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. VII. 

metal as those which he had first brought with him from 
Epirus. His elephants, too, had lost their terror in the eyes 
of the Romans, who derisively called them Lucanian bulls. 
His treasury was exhausted; and his self-reliance, already 
greatly diminished by former disappointments, was further 
impaired by the failure of a sacrilegious attempt he made at 
this time, for the purpose of replenishing his military coffers. 
Being sadly in want of money to pay his troops, he gave 
orders to seize the treasures of the temple of Proserpine, at 
Locri. But the ships which conveyed away the stolen 
booty, were wrecked, This circumstance deeply affected 
Pyrrhus. He restored to the goddess such portion of the 
plunder as was saved from shipwreck ; but, from this time, 
his mind became haunted by the idea that the wrath of 
Proserpine was pursuing him, and dragging him down to ruin. 

He withdraws from Italy (b. c. 274).— Nor was the 
success of his arms such as to dissipate his apprehensions. 
Wishing to beat separately the two consular armies which 
held him in check, he planned a night-attack upon one of 
them, which was commanded by M. Curius. But he miscal- 
culated the time and the distance ; the torches burnt out, the 
men missed their way, and it was broad daylight when he 
reached the heights above the enemy's camp. The exhaus- 
tion of his men made it easy for the Romans to repel the 
attack; the assailants were routed, two of their elephants 
were killed and eight more taken. Encouraged by this suc- 
cess, Curius then assumed the offensive, attacked the king- 
in the open plain, and gained a decisive victory. Pyrrhus 
escaped to Tarentum with only a few horsemen, and soon 
reembarked for his own country. 

His Death (b. c. 272). — Sad was the close of the life of 
this extraordinary man. Foiled in an attempt to take Sparta, 
Pyrrhus marched against Argos. As he was forcing his 
way into the town, he received a wound ; and, while he was 
pressing upon his antagonist, the mother of the latter, who 
from a house-top witnessed the fight, hurled at his head a 
tile with such force that he fell from his horse, and in this 
state was dispatched by the enemy. 

Rome Mistress of Italy. — The departure of Pyrrhus 
had left the Lucanians and other Italian tribes exposed to 
the full power of Rome. They continued the hopeless 
struggle a little longer ; but the surrender of the Tarentine 
fleet and garrison, in b. c. 272, gave to the Romans as com- 



ROMAN CITIZENSHIP. 



383 



plete a mastery over the southern, as they had before ob- 
tained over the central portion of the peninsula. A few 
years later, the whole of Italy south of the rivers Macra and 
Rubicon acknowledged their supremacy. Thus, after a 
struggle of amazing pertinacity, which lasted 120 years, 
Rome had triumphed over all her neighboring enemies ; 
she was now ready to dispute with Carthage the empire of 
the west 



CHAPTER VIII. 

The Roman Citizens, the People op the Latin Name, 
and the Allies. 

The Roman Citizens.— The free population of Italy was 
divided into three classes, the Roman citizens (fives Romani), 
those of the Latin name (?iome?i Latinum), and the allies 
(jsocit)i The Roman citizens consisted : 1. Of the members 
of the 33 tribes scattered over the territory proper (ager 
Romanus) of the republic, which now extended north of the 
Tiber a little beyond Veii, and southward as far as the Liris*; 
2d. Of the citizens of Roman colonies planted in different 
parts of Italy; 3d. Of the citizens of municipal towns upon 
whom the Roman franchise had been conferred. The num- 
ber of the citizens, at the conclusion of the Samnite and 
Tarentine wars, is estimated at 280,000, an aggregate which 
represents a total population of 1,200,000 souls. 

Urban and Suburban Tribes. — Of the. 33 tribes, 4 
were within, and 17 in the neighborhood of the city. Owing 
to their proximity to the Roman forum or the campus 
Martius — the only places where the Roman citizen could 
cast his vote — the urban and suburban tribes had more in- 
fluence than the others on public affairs. They were also 
favored in another way ; for, although their numbers prob- 
ably did not exceed those of .the outlying' tribes, yet they 
controlled 2 1 votes against 1 2 only possessed by the latter. - 

Roman Citizenship, besides the political franchise, im- 
plied among other rights :* absolute authority over wife and 

* These were sometimes granted to strangers without the right 
of voting in .the comitia — civitas sine stiff ragio. 



384 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. VIII. 

children, slaves and chattels ; exemption from stripes and 
capital punishment, — except in consequence of a vote of the 
people, or under military authority in the camp ; access to 
civil honors and employments ; in fine, the possession of 
lands and goods, subject only to the rules of Roman law, 
with immunity from tribute and such arbitrary taxes as might 
be imposed on subjects of the state. 

Roman Colonies. — The citizens of the Roman colonies 
were as free to vote in the assemblies at Rome, as if they 
had never quitted the city ; but, in practice, they could sel- 
dom use the privilege. Their own communities were orga- 
nized politically on the model of the parent state. They 
were ruled by two annually elected magistrates — duumvirs, 
corresponding to the consuls. They had their own popular 
assembly and senate, their own military chest and armed 
force. 

Latin Colonies. — The term nomen Latinum, or the 
Latin name, was applied to the colonies founded by Rome 
which did not enjoy the right of citizenship. These com- 
munities consisted mainly of Latins * who had not the Ro- 
man franchise. When Roman citizens, in consideration of 
valuable grants of lands, or otherwise, chose to join such 
Colonies, they forfeited by the v^ry act their citizenship, that 
is, the right to vote or become magistrates in Rome, but 
were permitted to retain the other personal privileges enu- 
merated above. The citizen of any Latin colony, who emi- 
grated to Rome, if he had previously held a magistracy in 
that colony, might be enrolled in one of the Roman tribes. 

The Allies. — The socz'i, or allies, included all the inhabi- 
tants of Italy south of the Macra and the Rubicon, who were 
not Roman citizens nor of the Latin name, viz., the Etrus- 
cans, the Latins, the Sabellian populations —Samnites, 
Lucanians, Apulians, Bruttians, with other minor tribes, and 
finally the Italian Greeks. As each of these communities 
yielded* to Roman arms, a treaty (fcedzis) was at once made 
which clearly determined its duties and rights. 

Duties and Rights of the Allies. — The one condi- 
tion invariably laid down by Rome was that, in case of war, 
the allies must furnish a quota of troops to fight side by side 
with the Roman legions. The allies, as a rule, were allowed 

* Within 70 years after the settlement of Latium, 20 such colo- 
nies were established in various parts of Italy. 



THE ROMAN ARMY. og,- 

to retain their lands, laws, and self-government. The Latins 
enjoyed the peculiar privileges of trade and intermarriage 
with Roman citizens, and also the jus Latii> whereby those 
that hid held the highest local magistracies might be raised 
to the dignity of Roman citizenship. The allies were, in 
reality, subject- nations. By means of her colonies, Rome 
bound them to her, and gradually imbued them with her 
own spirit, till at length, in laws, language, and institutions, 
they became one body politic with herself. 

Roman Roads. — Another means employed by the Ro- 
mans to consolidate their empire over the allies, was road- 
making. Within 50 years of the construction of the Appian 
way from Rome to Capua, the Valerian was laid to Corfin- 
ium ; the Aurelian skirted the coast of Etruria ; the Flami- 
nian penetrated the Apennines to Ariminum ; and the /Emi- 
lian continued this line to Placentia. Upon their solid 
pavement, in all weathers and at all seasons, the Roman 
legions could with all their baggage travel with speed and 
certainty. 



CHAPTER IX. 

The Roman Army. 



The Legionary. — The legal age for military service 
extended from 17 to 47. No one was admitted into the 
ranks of the Roman legions, who was not a citizen and 
possessed of some property, that both his condition and his 
fortune might be a pledge of gallant behavior. The Roman 
soldiers were simply citizens withdrawn for a few weeks or 
months from the pursuits of civil life. They were armed at 
their own expense ; and it was only from the siege of Veii, 
B. c. 400, that they received some compensation for the 
time spent on service. When the legionary had served 20 
years in the infantry or 10 in the calvary, being emeritus, he 
was entitled to an honorable discharge, and, if poor, might 
receive a grant of land in some newly conquered territory. 
Thus were founded the Roman colonies, sorts of permanent 
garrisons at once beneficial to the state and useful to the 
individuals. 



3 86 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IX. 

The Drill. — As most of the Romans cultivated their 
estates with their own hands, they generally had great bodily 
strength, and by their vigorous constitutions were well pre- 
pared for the toilsome life of the soldier. Out of such men, 
when came the day of enlisting, only the strongest were 
selected ;* and by violent exercises, these were further 
inured to the fatigues of painful and harassing marches. The 
new levies were made to practise running and leaping in their 
full armor, the throwing of the spear or javelin, the shooting of 
arrows, twice a day ; and the veterans, once. They engaged 
in mock fights ; or were employed on public works, such as 
those magnificent roads, which, from their authors and their 
objects, received the names of vies militares, military roads. 

Personal Baggage. — In consequence of this drilling, 
the Roman soldier was able to cany — besides his offensive 
and defensive. ^armor — two or three stakes (yalli), his bag- 
gage, and provisionsf for a certain number of days, the 
whole amounting to at least 60 pounds. Troops thus laden 
have been known to travel twenty -five miles in five hours. 
The commanders marched on foot, at the head of the army, 
setting to all an example of endurance, cheerfully submitting 
to every inconvenience, whether from the roads, the weather, 
the climate, or any other circumstance. 

The Roman Legion. — The number of foot-soldiers who 
composed a legion, and their style of equipment, varied at 
different times. The description we are about to give from 
Polybius, applies to the period of the great contest with Car- 
thage, which we have reached. The legion, at this time, 
usually contained 1000 velztes, 1200 hastati, 1200 principes, 
and 600 triarii, all of whom served on foot, besides 300 
equites supplied by the centuries of knights. The 300 horse 
were divided into 10 troops {turnnz), over each of which were 
placed three officers named decurions. The infantry, or 
legion proper, was divided into sixty small companies called 
centuries^ commanded by a centurion. The centurions were 

*Legere y legio, whence legion. 

fThe provisions consisted chiefly of wheat, which the soldiers 
usually crushed with stones, when they wished to have bread. In 
the baggage of each individual, was comprised a portion of the 
tools needed in intrenching the camp ; the stakes served to 
palisade it. 

* Century, or centurion, has no reference to the word centum, a 
hundred, but to the division of the people by centuries. Tribune, 
too, is derived from tribe [tribus). 



THE ROMAN ARMY. 



387 



the real leaders of the legion, and were chosen irom the 
ranks for their experience and skill. Next above them in 
each legion, were 6 tribunes (tribuni militimt), usually ap- 
pointed from the noble families at Rome through political 
influence. These had charge, two at a time. Their func- 
tions had reference to the levying and discharge, the equip- 
ment and supplies, of the troops ; they also tried and pun- 
ished offenders against military law. But minor offences 
fell under the cognizance of the centurion. 

Equipment. — -The velites, consisting of the youngest and 
poorest recruits, acted as the skirmishers of the legion. For 
defensive armor, they were furnished with a plain head- 
piece of leather strengthened with brass (galed) 3 and a 
strong circular buckler {parma) 3 ft. in diameter. Their 
offensive weapons were a sword and a light javelin (Jiasta 
velitaris). The sword (gladius) had a blade about 2 feet 
long and several inches wide ; it was two-edged and pointed, 
and hung from a belt on the right side, the left 'being en- 
cumbered by the buckler. The shaft of the javelin was 
about 3 ft. in length ; its iron point about 9 inches. This was 
hammered so fine that it was of necessity bent at the first 
cast, and therefore could not be hurled back by the foe. 
In battle, the v elites were not drawn up in regular manner, 
but posted, as occasion suggested, in front or at the wings 
of the enemy. 

The hastati * wore a full suit of defensive armor, consisting 
of shield, helmet, breastplate, and greave. Their shield, 
termed scutum^ was a rectangular piece of wood, covered 
with leather or with iron plates, exceeding 4 ft. in length and 
2 in width, but so curved as partially to encircle the body. 
Their helmet was a>i\x<y&(cassis)\ the breastplate was merely 
a piece of brass 9 inches square, covering the heart. But 
those who were rich enough to make the expense, had the 
loricdyOX complete cuirass of chain-armor. In lieu of cui- 
rass many had bands of metals fastened on their leathern 
coat f across breast and back and on the shoulders. The 
greave (ocrea), of bronze, protected the leg below the knee. 

* So called from having been originally armed with the hasta, 
just described as being now the distinctive weapon of the velites. 

t Under this coat, next the skin, was the tunica, a sleeveless 
woollen shirt, the only garment worn by the Romans when at work. 
In addition to his tunic and leathern coat, the soldier, in the field, 
had his military cloak, sagum, a woollen blanket. _ - 



388 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XL 

Usually out one was worn, on the right leg. — The offen- 
sive weapons of the hastati were a sword and two heavy jave- 
lins, or spears (pita). These javelins resembled those used 
by the velites, but were thicker, longer, and heavier. The 
wooden shaft was upwards of 4 ft. long ; and the iron shank, 
itself upwards of 2 ft. in length, terminated in a steel head. 
The whole weight of this weapon was nearly 10 pounds. 

The principes* were in every respect equipped like the 
hastati ; so also the triarii, f except that the latter, instead 
oipila (or spears) carried pikes (Jiastce), or long, heavy lan- 
ces. The pikes, as well as the light and the heavy javelins, 
formed the characteristic weapons of the legionaries.— At the 
bottom of the shaft was an iron shoe, so that, in camp or 
during a rest on the march, the spear might be set in the 
ground. 

When, subsequently,! the legionaries ceased to serve attheir 
own expenses, they were clothed, armed, and equipped 
alike, all being now furnished with the pila and the same 
kind of heavy sword {gladius). The distinction of hastati, 
principes, triarii then ceased to exist; the velites disap- 
peared, the skirmishers being included under the general 
term levis armatures, or light-armed troops, who consisted 
mostly of foreign mercenaries, such as the Balearic slingers 
(funditores'), the Cretan archers (sagittarii), and the Moor- 
ish dartmen (jacttlatores'). At times, however, and for 
special operations requiring great activity, detachments of 
legionaries were lightly equipped. 

Order of battle. — The first line of the army, when in 
battle-array, consisted of the hastati) next stood the princi- 
pes ; and last, the triarii. As the bugle sounded the charge, 
the three lines advanced, keeping proper intervals, sword in 
sheath, but the first two ranks of the hastati with spears up- 
lifted {pilis i7ifestis~) ready to hurl. When within reach of 
the enemy, the two front ranks of the hastati hurled their heavy 
spears in a shower ; and immediately, with drawn swords, 

* Derived from primi, first, because they originally occupied 
the front line. 

t So called, because, in the order of battle, they came third, viz, 
after the hastati and the pri?icipes. 

% In the first consulship of Marius, when the legions were 
thrown open to citizens of all grades, without distinction of fortune. 
Then we see the pita and gladius of the legionaries used in contra- 
distinction to the hastes and spaihee of the auxiliaries. 



^Hfi ROMAN ARMY; 38$ 

charged, upon the disordered mass of the foe, the odd numbers 
of the front rank springing forward to gain room, the even num- 
bers and the entire second rank following as a support. While 
a series of single combats thus took place along the whole line, 
the third, fourth, and fifth ranks pressed close up, to aid 
their comrades and to take the place of any that fell, and 
meanwhile threw their spears over the heads of the comba- 
tants among the throng of the enemy beyond. When the 
whole of the first line, that is, all the hastati, had thus been 
brought into action, it withdrew, to reform and get breath, 
while the second, rushing through the intervals, attacked in 
turn with spear and sword. After the lapse of some ten or fif- 
teen minutes, the haslati, if necessary, returned to the charge, 
and again made room for the principes^ each line being thus 
successively hurled against the enemy , and giving them no rest 
till they yielded. The triarii, meanwhile, were held in re- 
serve, being only brought into action in case the hastati and 
principes proved insufficient to overcome the enemy. -In 
this pliant and successive order of battle lay the superiority 
of the Roman tactics. Most other nations drew up their 
whole army in one line, trusting their fortunes to the success 
of one onset, which, if repulsed, was habitually followed by 
entire defeat. Their men stood close together, forming a 
compact body, which depended chiefly for success on the 
momentum of its mass. Only those on its outer edges could 
use their weapons, while the rest were practically imprisoned 
in the crowd, With the Romans, nearly every man, sooner 
or later, took part in the contest. Hence, although they 
might be greatly inferior in number, they could bring into 
action more swords and spears, at a given point, than the 
enemy could. 

The Auxiliary Troops. — Besides the legionaries, who 
were Roman citizens, there were attached to each legion an 
equal amount of infantry furnished by the socii, or subject- 
allies, and a body of horse twice or thrice as numerous as 
the Roman cavalry. In this way, the entire force of the 
legion might be reckoned at from nine to ten thousand men. 
But the allies were kept perfectly distinct, both in camp and 
on the battle-field. Their superior officers were called, not 
tribunes as in the legion, but prefects, prcsfecti sociorum. 

A Consular Army. — Under ordinary circumstances, 
four legions were levied yearly, two being assigned to each 
consul, and thus forming a consular army. When both 



39^ 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. IX. 



consuls took the field, their united troops, together with the 
contingents of the allies, amounted to nearly 40,000 men. 

The Roman Camp. — The location, construction, and for- 
tification of the camp, were objects of the greatest attention 
among the Romans. In time of war, they never passed a 
single night without intrenching themselves. Skill to select 
the camping-ground in a position easily defensible, with 
wood and water near by, was regarded by them as a most 
important qualification for a good commander. 

The form of the camp was a square, or a rectangle, crossed 
by a regular system of streets. The position assigned to 
each corps was so well determined, that any soldier arriving 
late knew at once where to find his company. The tents, 
made of skins, and large enough to contain ten soldiers with 
their chief, were arranged in lines, a space of 200 feet being 
left between them and the intrenchments, so that, in case 
of attack, they were secured from the darts of the enemy. 

Immediately upon reaching the place of encampment, 
parties were detailed under their centurions to dig the ditch 
— 9 feet deep, and raise the mound on the inner side of it. 
When completed, the mound was palisaded with interlaced 
stakes firmly planted on its summit. 

Sentries drawn from the ranks of the velites were posted 
at frequent intervals all along the rampart, and strong 
pickets, both of horse and foot, thrown forward to a consid- 
erable distance outside each of the four gates. We thus see 
that the Roman camp was a well fortified post, capable 
alike of checking the progress of the enemy and of afford- 
ing shelter to routed troops. It was also a place of safety, 
wherein a prudent commander might keep his soldiers until 
ready for action. 

Discipline. — Admirable order reigned in the camps and 
during the march of the Roman troops ; and a strict disci- 
pline guarded them against licentiousness and theft. Faults 
were punished, in proportion to their degree, with the rod, 
with degradation to a lower rank, and sometimes even with 
death. Indiscriminate pillage of an enemy's country was 
forbidden, but parties were especially detached for that pur- 
pose, and the spoils were held in common to be distributed 
by the tribunes among the soldiers. No one was allowed to 
eat before the signal was given, and this was done but twice 
a day. The soldiers stood up while taking their dinner, 
which was a very frugal meal ; their supper was a little better. 



CARTHAGE. 



391 



When it happened that the Roman troops failed in their 
obligations, or an uncommon effort was required of them, 
they were called to a sense of their duty, or made equal to 
the emergency, by the revival and even the increase of the 
former strictness of discipline. On such occasions, their 
commander made them undergo painful marches, or other- 
wise imposed such labors on them that they soon asked for 
the combat, as the end of their excessive fatigues. 



CHAPTER X. 

Carthage. — Her Conquests in Sicily. 

Her Commerce. — Carthage was indebted to the Tyrians, 
not only for her origin, but also for her manners, customs, 
laws, religion, and particularly for her enterprising spirit. 
She had commercial relations with every place of trade on 
the Mediterranean, and was the common carrier of the vast 
population established upon its borders. The Carthaginians 
worked the iron mines of Ilva (Elba), the silver mines of 
the Balearic Isles, and the gold mines of Spain. They 
traded with the Britons for tin, and with the Frisians and the 
Cimbri for amber. Wherever they found it necessary to 
protect their establishments, they erected fortresses and 
planted garrisons. 

Her Character. — The Carthaginians, as a nation, were 
never conspicuous for any proficiency in literature and the 
arts, nor for polish and gentleness of manners. They were, 
on the contrary, noted for craftiness, duplicity, and cruelty. 
This last disposition they displayed not only against enemies, 
but also against their Libyan subjects and their own fellow- 
citizens. The naval and military commanders were made 
responsible for the events of the war. Ill success was 
deemed a crime: the general who lost a battle, or failed 'in 
an expedition, was almost certain, at his return, to end his 
life upon a gibbet. 

Religion. — The Carthaginians evinced the same spirit of 
cruelty in their religious worship. In seasons of calamities, 
they immolated human victims, generally infants, to their 



392 CARTHAGE. Chapt. X. 

gods. On one occasion,* according to Diodorus Siculus, 
no fewer than 200 children of the first families were burnt 
alive in honor of Saturn. In vain did Darius I of Persia 
and others endeavor, even by threats of war, to deter the 
Carthaginians from such atrocities; the practice continued 
till the destruction of their city. 

Government. — The government of Carthage was oli- 
garchical : a few rich and powerful families divided among 
themselves the influence and power of the state. These 
great families were often at feud with one another, but con- 
curred in treating with contempt the mass of the people. 
Two chief magistrates, called suffetes, were elected annually 
from among the principal families. Like the Roman con- 
suls, they convoked the senate, and presided over its de- 
liberations ; they had also the care 01 the public revenues, 
and sometimes commanded armies in the field. 

The senate consisted of 300 members — persons venerable 
for their age, experience, standing in society, and personal 
merit. In this august body were debated all affairs of con- 
sequence, the letters from generals read, the complaints of 
provinces heard, ambassadors admitted to audience, and 
peace or war declared. 

Besides the senate, there was a council of One Hundred, 
holding office for life, and exercising an almost sovereign 
sway over the other authorities in the state. 

Her Military Organization. — The forces of the 
Carthaginians consisted of troops raised among themselves 
or their tributaries, but chiefly of mercenary soldiers — Lib- 
yans and Moors, Spaniards, Gauls, Greeks, and even Italians. 
These hired soldiers, attracted by liberal pay, were trained 
under Carthaginian officers. To attach them permanently 
to the service of the republic, they were enlisted together 
with their wives and families ; and, when sent on foreign 
expeditions, left hostages behind them. Yet, even such 
means failed to infuse into them either great attachment for 
their employers, or much zeal for the prosperity of the state 
whose battles they were engaged to fight. More than- one 
revolt of her mercenary troops imperilled not only the pros- 
perity, but the very existence of the Carthaginian republic. 

Her Conquests. — The superior political aptitude of 
Carthage enabled her, sometimes by arms, sometimes by 

* When Carthage was besieged by Agathocles. 



B. C. 480-460. WARS Itf SICILY. 393 

money, gradually to extend her empire. She not only sub- 
jected to her sway the whole north of Africa from the straits 
of Hercules to the borders of Cyrene ; but, after the weak- 
ening of Tyre by Nabuchodonosor (b. c. 574), she occupied 
Corsica and Sardinia, the Balearic Isles, Malta, and a part of 
Spain. Thenceforward she became formidable as a naval 
and military power. 

Siege of Himera (b. c. 480). — Sicily was to the Cartha- 
ginians one of their earliest objects of foreign conquest ; and 
their power in that island proportionately increased, as the 
Phoenicians' declined. But the Greeks also were powerful 
in Sicily, and successfully impeded the progress of Carthage. 
When therefore Xerxes, previous to his invasion of Greece, 
formed an alliance with the Carthaginians, the latter resolved 
to drive the Greeks from the island and secure its entire pos- 
session. Knowing well the difficulty of the enterprise, they 
made stupendous preparations ; and an armament of 300,000 
men and 2,000 vessels was entrusted to Hamilcar, who laid 
siege to the important city of Himera. 

Defeat of Hamilcar. — In his distress, Theron, the 
ruler of Himera, sent for aid to Gelon, who exercised the 
principal authority in Syracuse. Gelon at the head of 
50,000 foot and 5,000 horse, hastened to the relief of the 
besieged, and, learning on the way that Hamilcar expected a 
body of auxiliary troops, he chose from his own army an equal 
number of men whom he sent to that general. These pre- 
tended auxiliaries, being received as friends, slew Hamilcar 
and fired his vessels. Gelon at the same moment fell upon 
the Carthaginians, who, hearing that their leader was dead, 
and seeing their fleet in a blaze, lost courage and fled. In 
the dreadful slaughter which ensued, 150,000 men are said 
to have perished. The rest surrendered at discretion, and 
the Carthaginian government, crippled by this terrible dis- 
aster, sued for peace. 

Gelon, King of Syracuse (b. c. 480-473). — For this 
brilliant achievement Gelon was rewarded by his country- 
men with the royal diadem. Of this distinction he showed 
himself, during his short rule of seven years, more and more 
worthy. The sceptre, after his death, passed into the hands 
of his brothers Hiero and Thrasybulus, who reigned in suc- 
cession till the Syracusans, disgusted at the acts of tyranny 
committed by Thrasybulus, drove him from among thern, 
and restored the democratic form of government (b. c. 460). 



394 



CART HAGfi. Chapt. X. 



Carthaginian Conquests in Sicily. — 70 years after 
the battle of Himera, the Carthaginians again made vigor- 
ous efforts to subjugate Sicily. Not only Selinuntes, Hime- 
ra, and Gela, but the still more populous city of Agrigentum, 
fell into their hands. Emboldened by these successes, they 
at last directed their general Himilco, with his vast arma- 
ment of 300,000 men and a numerous fleet, to undertake the 
reduction of Syracuse. 

Dionysius, Tyrant of Syracuse (b. c. 405-368). — 
Syracuse was at this time under the sway of Dionysius the 
Elder. For some years previous, this able ruler had been 
preparing for a vigorous resistance. Yet such was the over- 
whelming force of the invaders, that he was forced at their 
approach to retire from the open field, and concentrate his 
strength within the city. 

Defeat of Himilco. — The Carthaginian leader, looking 
upon Syracuse as an assured prey, laid waste all the country 
round, sparing neither the temples nor the tombs within his 
reach, nor even the splendid mausoleum of king Gelon. But 
a fierce pestilence which desolated his camp, soon enabled 
Dionysius to attack him at a disadvantage. His land-army 
was almost totally destroyed ; and of his navy only 40 ves- 
sels escaped. The disappointed general returned to Car- 
thage, but no sooner entered his house, than, without seeing 
anyone, he killed himself in despair. 

Defeat of Dionysius. — The Carthaginians, although 
intensely grieved, still were not discouraged. After a short 
interval, they sent fresh troops into Sicily, Again they lost 
a great battle, in which Mago, the commander of the army 
and one of their chief magistrates, perished. This new dis- 
aster, however, was retrieved by another Mago, son to the 
one lately killed, who, after signally defeating Dionysius, 
obtained for Carthage an honorable peace together with 
some increase of territory in the island. 

Victories of Timoleon (b. c. 345-343). — The death 
of Dionysius was followed by great disturbances in Sicily. 
His son and successor, known as the younger Dionysius, 
was first expelled for his tyranny, but succeeded in regaining 
the power, which he abused as before. The Carthaginians, 
deeming this a favorable opportunity, sent an army against 
the Syracusans. The latter in this juncture applied to 
Corinth, and a body of 1,000 men under Timoleon was sent 
to their assistance. The Corinthian general found the Syr- 



B. C. 345-289. WARS IN SICILY. 395 

acusans in the most critical situation. The Carthaginians 
were masters of the harbor; Icetas, king of Leontium, a 
false friend, occupied the city, and Dionysius still retained 
the citadel. With the latter,* Timoleon first treated, and 
induced him to deliver the fortress with its garrison. 
Thereupon the Carthaginian leader, yielding to fear, returned 
to Carthage, where he was tried and condemned to death for 
his dastardly conduct. Two other generals, appointed in 
his place, led another expedition into Sicily, which consisted 
of 200 ships of war, and a land-force of 70,000 men. To this 
multitude Timoleon could oppose no more than 6000 war- 
riors. Yet, trusting to the courage of his little army, he 
marched out of the city, and gave battle to the invaders. A 
brilliant victory rewarded his confidence. The Carthaginians 
were confined within their ancient possessions, and peace 
was restored to the island. Timoleon spent the rest of his 
life at Syracuse, honored by all as a father and public bene- 
factor. At his death (b. c. 337), his mortal remains were 
accompanied to the grave by all the citizens, and annual 
games were instituted in his honor. 

Agathocles and the Carthaginians (b. c. 317-289). 
— Twenty years after the death of Timoleon, Agathocles, a 
Sicilian of obscure birth, but remarkable talents and still 
greater ambition, usurped the sovereign authority in Syra- 
cuse. Thence he extended his sway over other cities, till 
the Carthaginians, growing jealous of his power, directed 
their general Hamilcar to set a bound to his ambitious pro- 
jects. Hamilcar defeated him in the field, and finally shut 
him up in Syracuse. 

Seeing he could place but little reliance on the Syracusans, 
by whom he was held in detestation, Agathocles conceived 
the bold design of carrying the war into Africa. Without 
communicating his intentions to any but the pilots in his 
fleet, he reached the African shores, burnt his navy, so as to 
leave his men no other alternative than victory or death, and 
advanced into the enemy's country, subduing cities, and 
defeating all the levies sent against him. Happily for 
Carthage, Agathocles, at this juncture, determined to revisit 
Sicily. His absence, though short, caused a complete change. 
On his return, he failed to regain his former superiority. In 

* Dionysius is said to have spent the remainder of his life at 
Corinth, teaching school. 



396 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XI. 

this critical situation, seeking his personal safety, he again 
abandoned the army, and recrossed with a small escort into 
Sicily. The enraged soldiers vented their fury on his sons, 
and yielded themselves prisoners. Soon after, Agathocles 
died of poison, but not till he had restored democracy at 
Syracuse. It is recorded of him, that, being the son of a 
potter, he not only betrayed no shame of his birth, but 
purposely made use of earthen vessels at table, in order to 
perpetuate the recollection of his humble origin. 



CHAPTER XL 
First Punic War. — b. c 264-241. 

Polybius (b. c. 2^4-122). — From this epoch, we obtain, 
for the first time, the guidance of a truthful and impartial 
historian, Polybius, an educated Greek, who lived near 
enough in time to the events which he relates to have the 
means of verifying them with some accuracy. A hostage at 
Rome for many years, and an intimate friend of the young 
Scipio, he not only enjoyed frequent opportunities of con- 
versing with many of the chief actors in the Punic wars, but 
had access to the official documents of an earlier time. His 
history, though the great part of it has unfortunately perished, 
is one of the most valuable remains of antiquity. 

Remote Cause of the War. — The relations of Rome 
and Carthage had hitherto been peaceful ; and a treaty, con- 
cluded between the two states in the first years of the Ro- 
man republic, had been renewed more than once. But the 
extension of Roman dominion excited the jealousy of Car- 
thage, and Rome began to turn longing eyes to the fair island 
at the foot of her empire. It was evident that a struggle 
was not far distant, and Pyrrhus could not help exclaiming, 
as he quitted Sicily, ''What a fine battle-field do we leave to 
the Romans and the Carthaginians!" 

The Mamertini aided by Rome (b. c. 264). — The city 
of Messana, situated on the straits which divide Sicily from 
Italy, was occupied at this time by the Mamertini. They 
were soldiers from Bruttium, who had served under Agatho- 
cles, and after his death were marched (b. c. 283) to Messa- 



fi. C. 264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. 3^7 

na, in order to be transported to Italy. Whilst in that city, 
they massacred the male population, and made themselves 
masters of the women and property. They now took the 
name of Mamertini* (children of Mars), and soon became 
formidable to their neighbors. Hiero, the king of Syracuse, 
determined to destroy this nest of robbers. The Mamertini, 
unable to withstand him, invoked the assistance of Rome. 
The senate, who had lately concluded an alliance with Hiero, 
declined to interfere. But the consuls, thirsting for glory, 
called together the popular assembly, which eagerly voted 
that the Mamertini should be assisted. Meanwhile, however, 
a Carthaginian garrison had been admitted into the citadel 
of Messana; and, through the mediation of Hanno, their 
commander, peace had been made between Hiero and the 
Mamertini, so that Rome had no longer any pretext for in- 
tervention. But the tribune, C. Claudius, who brought to 
the Mamertini the assurance of R^oman assistance, persuaded 
them to expel the Punic garrison. In consequence, Hiero 
and the Carthaginians now proceeded to lay siege to Mes- 
sana ; and the Romans, on their side, declared war against 
Carthage. 

Successes of the Romans in Sicily. — The Carthagin- 
ians commanded the sea with a powerful fleet, while the 
Romans had no ships of war worthy of the name. But the 
consul Appius Claudius, the son of the censor, having con- 
trived to elude the Carthaginian squadron, landed near Mes- 
sana, and defeated in succession the forces of Syracuse and 
those of Carthage. Fresh successes, in the ensuing year, 
crowned the efforts of the consuls Otacilius and Valerius. 
Thereupon Hiero, foreseeing what would be the final result 
of the contest, offered his friendship to the Romans, and 
aided them in wresting from the Carthaginians Agrigentum, 
the second city of the island. 

The Romans build a Fleet. — At the end of the third 
year of the war, Rome had left to Carthage no more than a few 
maritime posts in the island. But, at sea, Carthage was still 
supreme. Her navy infested the Italian coasts, and often 
distressed the Roman armies in Sicily by intercepting their 
supplies. Nor could the Romans, with their small number 
of triremes^ at all cope with the quinqueremes of which the 

* From Mamers, a Sabellian name for the god Mars, 
t The triremes were vessels with three, the quinqueremes with 
five, banks of oars. 

84 



39» 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt, XI. 



Carthaginian navy consisted. They even seem to have 
been not only destitute of war vessels, but devoid also of the 
'knowledge required for their construction. It was not till 
chance threw upon the coasts of Latium a Carthaginian 
quinquereme, that they obtained a model upon which to 
work. Then, indeed, their activity was truly marvellous. In 
the short space of two months, forests were cut down, tim- 
bers sawed, and no fewer than 120 galleys of large size and 
adequate solidity constructed. While the ships were build- 
ing, thousands of people were made to learn the art of rowing 
by practising upon benches on dry land. With ships thus 
hastily and clumsily built, and with crews imperfectly trained, 
did the Romans dare the first maritime state in the world ! 

Naval Victory of Duilius (b. c. 260). — In the fifth 
year of the war, one of the consuls, Cn. Cornelius put to sea 
with 17 ships, but w r as surprised near Lipara, and made pris- 
oner with his whole squadron. His colleague C. Duilius, 
on assuming command of the rest of the fleet, easily per- 
ceived that he could not expect to conquer the Carthagin- 
ians by sea, unless he first deprived them of all the advantage 
of manoeuvring, and took their ships by boarding. He 
therefore provided the Roman galleys with solid frames of 
timber 36 ft. in length, which were fastened to a mast in the 
forepart of the vessels, and armed at their extremity with an 
iron spike. * Whenever a hostile ship came near enough, 
these frames were to be dropped upon her deck, and, be- 
coming fastened by means of the spike, would thus form an 
improvised drawbridge upon which the Romans might pour 
into the enemy's vessel, and immediately come to close en- 
gagement. Relying upon this contrivance, Duilius went in 
search of the Carthaginians. He found their armament, con- 
sisting of 130 sail, near the coast of Mylae, in Sicily. At the 
approach of an enemy whom they totally despised, the 
Carthaginians hastened to the fight as to a triumph. But 
their ships were rapidly seized by the boarding-bridges, and, 
when it came to a close fight their crews were no match for 
the hardy Romans. The victory of Duilius was complete, 
and peculiar honors were conferred upon him. He enjoyed 
a naval triumph, the first of the kind ever celebrated at 
Rome. A white marble column, adorned with the beaks f 

* In Latin corvus, or crow. 

f Called in consequence columna rostrata, rostrum and rostra 
being the Latin words for beak and beaks. 



B. C. 264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. 399 

of the conquered ships, was erected in the foriim, to perpetu- 
ate the? memory of his achievement; and it was decreed 
that, when returning from banquets, at night, he should 
be escorted home by the light of torches and the sound of 
the flute. 

Battle of Ecnomus (b. c. 256). — The war continued at 
various points, but with a sort of remissness, until B. c. 256, 
when, wishing to invade Africa, the Romans fitted out an 
immense armament. It consisted of 330 vessels and 
40,000 legionaries, and was in charge of the two consuls, 
Manlius and Regulus. The Carthaginians met the Ro- 
mans with still more extensive preparations. Their fleet, 
consisting of 350 ships, encountered the enemy near Ecno- 
mus, on the southern coast of Sicily. The battle which en- 
sued, was the greatest sea-fight that the ancient world had 
yet seen. Here again the boarding-bridges of the Romans 
annihilated all the advantages of maritime skill. The vic- 
tory was decisive, and the conquerors pursued the van- 
quished to the African shores. 

The Bagrada Serpent.— Africa had long been to the 
Romans a land of monsters and imaginary terrors. On land- 
ing upon its coasts, they hesitated to advance, and thus al- 
lowed Carthage time to make preparations for a vigorous 
defence. One story popular at Rome asserted that the in- 
vaders met, near the river Bagrada, a serpent of prodigious 
size, whose skin no dart could penetrate. As several sol- 
diers were killed by this monster, it became necessary to at- 
tack it with the whole strength of the army and with every 
sort of machines, as though it were a fortress. After many 
ineffectual discharges, a huge stone thrown by one of 
the engines at length broke the back-bone of the serpent, 
and left it stretched on the ground. The skin of the mons- 
ter, 120 ft. long, was sent to Rome, and hung up in one of 
the temples. 

Regulus in Africa. — After removing this obstacle and 
securing means of supply and retreat, the consuls laid 
waste the Carthaginian territory with fire and sword, and 
collected an immense booty. On the approach of winter, 
the senate recalled Manlius and one-half of the legions. 
With the remainder, Regulus defeated a large force of the 
enemy, and established himself at Tunis within 20 miles of 
Carthage. The Numidians took the opportunity of recover- 
ing their independence, and their roving bands completed 



400 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XI. 

the devastation of the country. Then the Carthaginians, in 
despair, asked for peace. But Regulus, dazzled by his suc- 
cess, would not grant it except on the most rigorous terms, 
and rather than accept these, the Carthaginians resolved to 
continue the war. 

Xantippus at Carthage. — The Carthaginians now 
placed at the head of their troops Xantippus, a Lacedaemo- 
nian officer of great experience. Under this new leader, af- 
fairs assumed quite a different aspect. After he had care- 
fully trained the soldiers, relying on his 4000 cavalry and 100 
elephants, he offered battle to the enemy. Regulus, al- 
though stationed in a very unfavorable position, did not de- 
cline the contest. His defeat was complete. Nearly all his 
army was destroyed ; and he was taken prisoner, together with 
500 of his legionaries (b. c. 255). 

Embassy of Regulus (b. c. 250). — It is related that 
five years later, the Carthaginians dispatched an embassy to 
Rome, to negotiate terms of peace and an exchange of 
prisoners. With their envoys they sent Regulus, whom 
they bound on parole to return to captivity, should their 
offers be rejected. The senate was well inclined to accept 
the proposed terms. But, to the surprise of all, Regulus 
exhorted them not to do so, because such a course would 
be to the advantage of Carthage. Resisting the entreaties 
of his friends, he took his way back into captivity ; and the 
Carthaginians, unmoved by his honorable conduct, wreaked 
their vengeance upon him by a series of horrible tortures 
which ended only with his death. The story* proceeds to relate 
that two noble Carthaginians were handed over to the widow 
of Regulus, who tortured them to death with a barbarity 
quite equal to that by which her husband had perished. 

Roman Fleets destroyed by Storms. — A fleet of 
300 sail, which the senate had sent to bring back from Africa 
the remnants of the army of Regulus, not only succeeded in 
effecting that object, but gained a new victory over the 
Carthaginians. However, as the conquerors were returning 
home, they were overtaken off Camarina, in Sicily, by a 
furious tempest. Nearly the entire fleet was destroyed, the 
coast being strewed for miles with wrecks and corpses (b. c. 

255)- 

*There are good reasons for doubting the truth of all these 
details. 



B. C. 264-241. FIRST PUNIC WAR. 4OI 

The Romans with undiminished energy immediately 
built another fleet ; and, in less than three months, 220 ships 
were ready for sea. But, like the former armament, this one 
also, after ravaging the coast of Africa (b. c. 253), was sur- 
prised by a storm in which 150 vessels were wrecked. Dis- 
couraged by their losses, the Romans now contented them- 
selves with maintaining such a navy as sufficed to protect the 
shores of Italy and their communications with Sicily. For 
the next two years, therefore, the war was confined to that 
island, and even here it was suffered to languish. Since the 
defeat of Regulus, the Roman soldiers had been so greatly 
alarmed by the elephants, that their generals did not ven- 
ture to attack the Carthaginians. 

Battle of Panormus (b. c. 250). — At length, in b. c. 
250, the Roman proconsul L. Metellus accepted battle under 
the walls of Panormus (the modern Palermo), and gained 
a decisive victory, in which he killed 20,000 of the enemy, 
and took 13 of their generals who adorned his triumph. One 
hundred and four elephants were also captured, and led in the 
triumphal procession. These animals were afterwards exposed 
to be hunted by the populace in the circus, where it was 
soon discovered that they were not really formidable. 
Encouraged by their late success, the Romans deter- 
mined once more to build a large fleet. The Carthaginians, 
on the contrary, sued* for peace. Failing to obtain it, and 
being too much exhausted to continue the struggle in the open 
field, their troops in Sicily withdrew to the fortresses of 
Lilybaeum and Drepanum, at the western extremity of the 
island. 

Siege of Lilybaeum (b. c. 250-241). — Lilybaeum was the 
stronghold of the Carthaginian power in Sicily ; and accord- 
ingly the Romans determined to concentrate all their efforts 
against it. The siege which followed, is one of the most 
memorable in ancient history ; it began in the fall of B. c. 
250, and lasted till the termination of the war. 

Battle of Drepanum (b. c. 249) —In the second year 
of the siege of Lilybaeum, the consul P. Claudius sought out 
the hostile fleet near Drepanum, and challenged it to battle. 
In vain did the auguries warn him ; in vain was he informed 

*This wish for peace led to the dispatch of the embassy of which 
Regulus formed part. 



402 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XL 

that the sacred chickens would not eat.* "At any rate," 
said he, " let them drink," and he ordered them to be thrown 
overboard. Disconcerted by this action, and imagining 
themselves to be under the displeasure of their gods, his 
soldiers did not fight with their usual intrepidity. This cir- 
cumstance, and the masterly manoeuvres of the Carthaginian 
admiral, who confined the Romans to so narrow a place that 
they could scarcely move, gave the enemy a brilliant triumph. 
Of the Roman armament only 30 vessels escaped ; about 90 
were taken with more than 20,000 legionaries, and the rest of 
the fleet was destroyed. Such a defeat Rome had not suffered 
since the day of the Allia. Claudius was recalled and 
requested to resign. 

A Roman Fleet Wrecked. — About this time also, the 
other consul Junius, whilst conveying provisions to the 
besiegers at Lilybaeum, was overtaken by one of those terri- 
ble storms which had thrice before proved so fatal to the 
Roman fleets. The transports, 800 in number, were all 
dashed to pieces, and of his 105 ships of war only two 
escaped. 

Success of Hamilcar Barca (b. c 247-241). — During 
the following years, the Romans contented themselves with 
keeping up the blockade of Lilybaeum. Their enemy on the 
contrary became more active than ever. Under the enter- 
prising Hamilcar, surnamed Barca (the lightning), the 
Carthaginians roved the seas unopposed, plundering the 
coasts both of Sicily and of Southern Italy. Not content 
with this, Hamilcar occupied Mount Hercte near Panormus, 
whence for three years he paralyzed all the efforts of the 
Romans against Lilybaeum ; and, at last, from Hercte he 
transported his army to Eryx, near Drepanum, a position 
yet stronger than the former. 

Battle off the ^Egatian Islands (b. c. 241).— At 
this juncture, the Romans, despairing of driving the Carthagin- 
ians out of Sicily so long as the latter were masters of the 
sea, resolved to build another fleet. The treasury was 
empty ; but the people filled it with voluntary contributions, 
and an armament of two hundred galleys, speedily equipped, 
was led to the coast of Sicily by the consul Lutatius. There 

*The Romans, like other ancient nations, were addicted to that 
superstitious practice of auspices and omens which looked for signs 
of the divine will and presages of futurity in the flight of birds or 
their manner of eating. 



B. C. 24i. END OF THE FIRST FUNiC WAR 403 

he blockaded the Carthaginian land-forces, and gained a 
great victory at sea, off the ^Egatian islands. 

End of the War. — The Carthaginians, thus deprived of 
their supremacy at sea, and weary of the war, sent orders to 
Hamilcar to make the best terms he could. Peace was at 
last concluded, on the following conditions : that Carthage 
should evacuate Sicily and the adjoining islands, molest no 
ally of Rome, restore all the prisoners without ransom, and 
pay the sum of 3200 talents within the space of ten years 
(b. c. 241). 



CHAPTER XII. 



Events between the First and the Second Punic War. 

b. c. 240-210. 

Roman Occupation of Sicily, Sardinia, and Cor- 
sica. — The first contest between Rome and Carthage had 
lasted 24 years, and a period of equal length elapsed before 
the two nations came again into collision. The interval was 
spent by both in making fresh conquests. The Romans 
first consolidated Sicily into a province, a name henceforth 
given to every new acquisition of territory outside of Italy 
proper. * True, a nominal independence was allowed to 
Syracuse under Hiero, to Messana, and some other Sicilian 
states; but the major part of the island, placed under a Ro- 
man pretor, was required to pay a yearly tithe of corn and 
other produce, and to none but Roman purchasers could 
the inhabitants sell their lands. Thus a large portion of the 
soil soon passed into the hands of the conquering race. — 
Sardinia and Corsica were next taken by the Romans, and 
also formed into a province (b. c. 238). 

Temple of Janus closed in 235 b. c. — The annexation 
of Sardinia and Corsica was followed by a short interval of 
peace; and, in b. c. 235, the temple of Janus, which had re- 
mained open since the days of Numa, was closed a second 

*The old Romans, as has been said before, never included Cis- 
alpine Gaul in Italy. 



464 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XII. 

time. — At this period two new tribes were added to the Ro-, 
man territory, thus making their total number 35. 

Conquest of Corcyra (b. c. 229). — The eastern shores 
of the Adria. ; c had long been the nest of a swarm of pirates; 
and these buccaneers, under their queen Teuta, had of late 
become over-bold. Corcyra had fallen under their dominion. 
Not a few Greek cities on the coast had been plundered, and 
Roman commerce was interfered with. Rome, therefore, 
determined to put down these barbarians. One cam- 
paign sufficed; and not only were the Illyrians reduced 
within their proper limits, but Corcyra was added to the ter- 
ritories of the republic, and an alliance, amounting almost to 
a protectorate, was concluded with the numerous Greek 
towns along the coast. The people of Hellas were over- 
joyed at being relieved from apprehension from their savage 
neighbors. The Romans, hailed as a race of heroes, were 
solemnly invited by Corinth to take part in the IsJimian 
games, while, at Athens, they were declared to be honorary 
citizens, and admitted to the Eleusinian mysteries. 

Battle of Telamon. — The next great step in advance 
made by Rome, was the conquest of the whole Gaulish 
territory between her own northern frontier and the Alps. 
Hitherto her most advanced positions had been Ariminum 
on the upper, and Lucca on the lower coast. But, in 
B. c. 252, the tribune C. Flaminius carried an Agrarian law 
to the effect that the territory from which the Senones had 
been ejected 50 years before, known as 'Gallic Land,' should 
be distributed among the poorer citizens. This alarmed the 
Boii, who dwelt upon the borders of this district. They in- 
voked the assistance of the Insubres ; and, being joined by 
them, as well as by large bodies of Gauls from beyond the 
Alps, they set out for Rome. All Italy trembled at their 
approach. The Romans especially were in consternation. 
The Sibylline books being consulted, the answer was that 
Rome must be twice occupied by a foe ; whereupon the sen- 
ate ordered two Gauls and two Greeks to be buried in the 
forum, hoping thus to satisfy the requirements of Fate. But 
Roman policy, to ward off the impending danger, relied not 
alone on the performance of this cruel rite. A ' Gallic tu- 
mult ' was proclaimed ; all the citizens were called to arms, 
and an army of 150,000 foot and 6,000 horse was speedily 
raised. Every city, moreover, was required to strengthen 
its defences, and to lay in stores of arms and provisions. 



B. C. 225-222. CONQUEST OF CISALPINE GAUL. 405 

Nor did the senate neglect negotiations. The Cenomani and 
Veneti were prevailed upon to act in the rear of the Gauls, 
as they advanced southward, and to threaten their posses- 
sions. The force of the invaders was thus crippled at the 
outset, and they were unable to pour into the Roman terri- 
tory more than 50,000 foot and 20,000 horse. Yet they ad- 
vanced undismayed ; and, pushing adroitly between two op- 
posing armies, crossed the Apennines, and descended into 
the valley of the Arno. The first Roman force that closed 
with them, was repulsed, and only saved from destruction 
by the opportune arrival of a second. Evading the pursuit 
of the combined armies, the Gauls retreated with their booty, 
but unexpectedly found themselves confronted, at Telamon, 
by a third Roman army which had just arrived from Sar- 
dinia. Thus surrounded, the invaders were completely over- 
powered. As many as 40,000 of their men were slain, and 
10,000 were taken prisoners (b. c. 225). 

Conquest of Cisalpine Gaul (b. c. 225-222).— The 
Romans pursued the retreating Gauls across the frontier, 
and carried the war into the enemy's country. There it 
continued to rage for three years, as the natives fought gal- 
lantly in defence of their homes. The Boii, who were first 
attacked, submitted in B. c. 224. In the following year, the 
Romans for the first time crossed the Po, and the consul C. 
Flaminius gained a brilliant victory over the Insubres. His 
agrarian law, above referred to, had made him a favorite 
with the people, while it excited the opposition of the aris- 
tocracy. Just before he gave battle to the Gauls, the senate, 
in their jealousy, sent letters warning him against an engage- 
ment, because the omens were unfavorable. But not till he 
had fought and won, would he open the letters ; and then he 
quietly remarked, that it was too late to act upon the advice. 
At the end of the campaign, he demanded a triumph ; and, 
when the senate refused it, the people interfered, and de- 
creed him full honors by a vote in their assembly— Flam- 
inius secured for himself more lasting fame as the builder of 
the great Flaminian Way, the direct road from Rome to the 
Gallic frontier near Ariminum. 

The consuls of the next year, Cn. Cornelius Scipio and M. 
Claudius Marcellus, continued the war against the Insubres, 
who called to their aid a fresh body of Transalpine Gauls. 
Marcellus slew with his own hand in personal combat, the 
Gaulish king Viridomarus, and thus gained the third spolia. 



4 o6 CARTHAGE. Chapt. XII. 

opima* 'the prize of prizes.' At the same time, Scipio 
took Mediolanum (Milan), the chief town of the Insubres. 
This people now submitted unconditionally, and the war was 
brought to an end. To secure this conquest, the Romans 
planted (b. c. 218), at Placentia and Cremona, two Latin 
colonies consisting each of 6,000 men ; and the military road 
was soon after continued from Ariminum to the foot of the 
Alps. About this time also, the Roman eagles f were carried 
into the peninsula of Istria, and access by land was thereby 
secured into the regions beyond the Adriatic. With such 
giant steps did Rome proceed onward to universal empire. 
Meanwhile Carthage, as shall be seen presently, had not 
been idle. 

Revolt of the Carthaginian Mercenaries (b. c. 
240-238). — Defeated and bankrupt as she was at the end of 
the first Punic war, Carthage had soon to face on her own 
soil a yet sterner struggle. Her mercenary troops, who had 
returned to Africa, not receiving their arrears of pay, rose in 
open mutiny, under Spendius, a runaway Campanian slave, 
and Matho, a Libyan. They were quickly joined by thenative 
Libyans, and brought Carthage almost to the brink of 
destruction. They laid waste the whole country with fire 
and sword; made themselves masters of all the towns, 
except the capital ; and committed the most frightful atroci- 
ties. In this crisis, Carthage owed her safety to the genius 
of Hamilcar. He armed the populace, changed them into 

* Twice only had such an exploit been achieved before — by 
Romulus and by Tullus Hostilius. Marcellus's was the last feat 
of the kind. 

f A small eagle {aquila) usually of bronze, fastened on the top 
of a wooden staff, was the standard of the legion. Often it was 
adorned with a vexillum, a little banner, suspended from a cross- 
bar.— The standard of the cohort, called signum, was usually a fig- 
ure of an animal — a wolf or sheep, for instance— on a staff. Its 
bearer was the signifer; and that of the eagle, the aquilijer. 
Vexilla were also carried on the flanks of the maniples to mark 
the alignment, performing the same office as guidons in a modern 
battalion.— The cavalry and light troops, and all separate detach- 
ments, carried only the vexillum. Its bearer was called vexilla- 
rius. Under the empire, the figure of the animal on the signum 
was replaced by a representation of the head of the reigning 
emperor, which became an object of worship to the soldiers ; and, 
after Constantine, to the emperor's head was substituted that of the 
Savior. In the time of the pagan emperors, the eagles were ol 
silver, and, like the signa, objects of worship. 



B. C. 235-225. HAMILCAR IN SPAIN. 407 

soldiers, secured the cooperation of 2000 brave Numidians, 
and, thus supported, met and defeated the rebels. By- 
superior generalship, he finally ensnared them within a spot 
from which there was no escape. Here the mercenaries 
were soon reduced by famine to such straits, that they began 
to feed upon one another — a just punishment, says Polybius, 
of the atrocities which they had committed during the war. 
Hamilcar showed no mercy, and sheathed not the sword, so 
long as one rebel survived. This was called the inexpiable 
war. It gave Carthage a pretext to extend her sway farther 
into Numidiaand Mauritania; but, at the same time brought 
about a political revolution. The popular party in arms, 
with Hamilcar at its head, had retrieved the fortunes of the 
state. They now claimed a voice in its government, and the 
old aristocracy had no option but to submit to their demands. 
Hamilcar's Hatred of Rome. — It was only with 
extreme reluctance that Hamilcar had quitted his impregna- 
ble position at Eryx, in b. c. 541, when commanded by his 
government to make peace with Rome. The conduct of the 
Romans, who profited by the revolt of the Carthaginian 
mercenaries to subdue Sardinia and Corsica, added to his 
hatred of the grasping republic. All his thoughts were now 
bent on finding means of renewing hostilities against Rome. 
But, being thwarted at home by the aristocratic faction, he 
turned his energies in the direction of Spain. 

Sapin. — Hispania, or Iberia, with its fertile soil, its rich 
gold mines, and its hardy population, was a prize worthy to 
be contested by the greatest of nations. The conqueror of 
such a country would secure great store of the precious 
metals, large openings for commerce, and an inexhaustible 
supply of willing and vigorous recruits. Thus would be ob- 
tained the means of attacking, and perhaps crushing that 
hated rival who had robbed Carthage of Sicily, Sardinia, 
and Corsica. 

Hamlicar in Spain (b. c. 235-225). — The Carthaginian 
senate, accustomed to regard commerce rather than arms as 
the main-stay of their national greatness, looked with jealous 
apprehension on the warlike schemes of their great captain. 
But Hamilcar, having once extorted permission to wage his 
warfare in Spain, was at no loss to make the war self-main- 
taining. While he subdued several states by force of arms, 
he gained over others by negotiations, and availed himself 
of their services as allies or mercenaries. The booty he 



4 o8 CARTHAGE. Chapt. XII. 

acquired was used, in part, to bribe his adversaries at home ; 
and, when he fell in battle, B. c. 225, the popular party 
obtained without difficulty the appointment of his son-in-law, 
Hasdrubal, to complete his undertakings. 

Hasdrubal in Spain (b. c. 225-221). — The soldier was 
succeeded in this case by the statesman. The wise policy 
of Hasdrubal conciliated the native tribes, and won the con- 
fidence of their chiefs. This influence was exerted to pacify 
their intestine feuds, and to weld them into a confederacy 
under Carthage. The empire he thus won to his country, 
he consolidated by the foundation of Carthagena (New 
Carthage), in a situation admirably chosen on account of its 
excellent harbor, and of its proximity both to the Punic 
coast, and to the silver mines which supplied him with the 
means of paying his troops. 

Roman Interference. — The Romans could not behold 
the progress of Carthage in Spain without alarm. Professing 
to act in the interest of the Massilians, their allies, they 
bound Hasdrubal, under a threat of immediate war, not to 
extend his conquests beyond the Ibefus (Ebro). They also 
entered into friendly relations with the people of Saguntum* 
who dwelt to the south of the Iberus. Having taken these 
precautions, and appealing to the faith of their treaty with 
Carthage, which required both parties not to molest each 
other's allies, they awaited the course of events. 

Hannibal Commander-in-chief (b. c. 221). — Hasdru- 
bal was assassinated, in B. c. 221, by a Gaulish slave, whose 
master he had put to death. The army at once acclaimed 
Hannibal, the son of Hamilcar, as their commander ; and the 
government at Carthage hastened to ratify an appointment 
which they had not, in fact, the power to prevent. Hanni- 
bal was, at this time, in his 26th year. His childhood and 
youth had been spent in the camp, where he had learned 
the art of war from his father, and that of government from 
his brother-in-law. When he was but nine years old, he 
witnessed the solemn sacrifice offered by his father Hamil- 
car, for the success of the enterprise which he was on the 
point of launching against Spain. At the close of the cere- 
mony, the father bade his child devote himself to the service 
of his country by swearing, with his hand on the altar, never 
to be the friend of the Romans. The oath was taken ; and 

*A city of Greek origin, founded by the Zacinthians. 



B. C. 219. CAPTURE OF SAGUNTUM. aqq 

there is little doubt that, at the time of his appointment as 
commander-in-chief, Hannibal was already looking forward 
to the invasion and conquest of Italy. But he had first to 
consolidate the work of his two predecessors, by firmly 
establishing the Carthaginian .power in Spain. Having in 
two campaigns completed the subjugation of all the Spanish 
nations south of the Iberus, he next proceeded to lay siege 
to Saguntum. 

Capture of Saguntum (b. c. 219).— Though situated 
south of the Iberus, and therefore not included in the treaty 
between Hasdrubal and the Romans, Saguntum had con- 
cluded an alliance with the latter people. There could be 
little doubt, therefore, that an attack upon the city would 
bring on a war with Rome ; but for this Hannibal was pre- 
pared, or rather it was his real object. The pretext of his 
invasion was the same that the Romans themselves so often 
brought forward — some injury inflicted by the Saguntines 
upon a neighboring tribe in friendship with Carthage. The 
resistance of Saguntum was long and desperate. For 8 
months the inhabitants, nerved perhaps by the vain hope of 
aid from Rome, made a glorious defence ; and, in the end, 
setting fire to their dwellings, they perished in the conflagra- 
tion kindled with their own hands. 

The Romans Declare War (b. c. 219). — When news 
reached Rome that Hannibal was threatening Saguntum, 
ambassadors came to remind him of the treaty with Has- 
drubal, and forbade him to meddle with the allies of Rome. 
He referred them for an answer to the government at home, 
and proceeded with his designs. At Carthage, the envoys 
found the war-party predominant, and were equally unsuc- 
cessful. No further step was taken by Rome till Saguntum 
had fallen, when a second embassy appeared at Carthage, 
demanding the surrender of Hannibal in atonement for the 
breach of the treaty. After much discussion, Fabius, one 
of the envoys, holding up a fold of his toga, said, " I carry 
here peace or war, choose ye." " The choice rests with 
you," was the senate's reply. (i Then," answered Fabius, 
letting fall his toga, " let it be war," 



4IO ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 



CHAPTER XIII. 
Second Punic War. — b; c. 218-201. 

Hannibal sets out for Italy (b. c. 218). — By the 
Carthaginian government all the preparations for, as well as 
the conduct of, the war were left entirely to Hannibal. The 
youthful general first provided for the defence of Spain and 
Africa in his absence ; and, quitting his winter-quarters at 
New Carthage, late in the spring of b. c. 218, proceeded to- 
wards the Pyrenees. The Spanish tribes along his route 
offered considerable resistance, and forced upon him cir- 
cumspection and delay. In Gaul, on the contrary, he met 
no opposition till he reached the Rhone, the passage of 
which river was barred by bands of natives. Detaching a 
small force to cross the stream higher up and attack the en- 
emy in the rear, Hannibal effected his passage on the fifth 
day. But more time had been consumed in coming thus 
far, than he had anticipated. 

Movements of the Romans. — The Romans, not sus- 
pecting the design of their enterprising enemy, had levied, 
as usual, two consular armies, one of which under P. Corne- 
lius Scipio was destined to act against Hannibal himself in 
Spain ; and the other, under Sempronius, to invade Africa. 
When the news of Hannibal's advance reached Rome, it be- 
came necessary to change these plans at once. With the 
portion of his army which had not yet embarked for Spain, 
Scipio sailed to Massilia ; and, though he arrived too late to 
prevent Hannibal from crossing the Rhone, yet he shut him 
up from the easier and more direct road into Italy, that of 
the coast-line. The wary Carthaginian, who expected to 
swell his numbers with natives of the Cisalpine, would not 
pit his Numidians and Spaniards against the Romans, until 
he had planted himself on Italian soil. 

Hannibal Crosses the Alps. — Avoiding therefore a 
combat with Scipio, Hannibal continued his march up the 
left bank of the Rhone, as far as its confluence with the 
Isere. Here he interposed in a dispute between two rival 
chiefs of the Allobroges ; and, by lending his aid to establish 
one firmly on the throne, obtained from him guides, provi- 
sions, and clothing. Higher up in the mountains, however, 
he was attacked by the natives, who killed many of the in- 



B. C. 2I8-20I. SECOND PUNIC WAR. 



411 



vaders. The natural difficulties of the pass,* besides, were 
increased by the lateness of the season. For it was now the 
month of October, at which time the mountain paths are 
already encumbered with snow or made slippery with ice. 
Neither the men nor the elephants of Africa were prepared 
for such an adventure. No wonder that many of both the 
soldiers and the animals perished, during the fifteen days oc- 
cupied by the ascent and descent. Strange stories were told 
of the difficulties of all sorts encountered and overcome, of 
horses hauled up with ropes, of steps cut with swords and 
spades in the sides of the mountains, of rocks blasted with 
fire and vinegar. Exaggerated as these reports are, they 
enable us to understand the magnitude of the havoc made 
in the invading army, during its passage across the Alps. 
Such indeed were the losses sustained here, or in fighting 
the Spaniards north of the Iberus ; such the number of 
those who either deserted whilst crossing the Pyrenees, or 
were left behind to defend the new conquests in northern 
Spain, that the mighty armament of 90,000 foot, 12,000 
horse, and 37 elephants, with which, . 5 months before, the 
expedition had set out from New Carthage; had dwindled, 
when it emerged into the valley of the Po, to 20,000 foot, 
6,000 horse, and 7 elephants. With such paltry numbers 
did the bold invader attempt to overthrow a power that 
wielded a force of above 700,000 fighting men ! 

Skirmish on the Ticinus (b. g. 218). — Hannibal's first 
care was now to recruit the strength of his troops, exhausted 
by their recent fatigues and hardships. When they had 
taken sufficient repose, he aroused their spirits by a moving 
speech, and went in search of the enemy, whom he found 
posted on the north bank of the Po, near the river Ticinus. 
Here took place the first encounter of Hannibal with the 
Romans, in Italy. The cavalry and light-armed troops of 
both armies were alone engaged, and the superiority of Han- 
nibal's Numidian horse at once decided the combat in his 
favor. The Roman commander, Scipio, severely wounded 
in the action and with difficulty saved from captivity or death 
by his youthful son, afterwards the famous Africanus, has- 
tened to take shelter within the walls of Placentia. 

Battle of the Trebia (b. c. 218). — After the skir- 
mish on the Ticinus, the Cisalpine Gauls began to declare 
for Hannibal, and 2,000 of their warriors passed over from 

* Probably that of the Graian Alps, or Little St. Bernard. 



412 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

the Roman to the Carthaginian camp. The example was 
speedily followed, and in a short time Hannibal found him- 
self at the head of nearly 40,000 men. With this force he 
advanced to Placentia, and offered battle to Scipio. The 
latter, declining the combat, withdrew to the hills on the left 
bank of the Trebia, where he was joined by his colleague 
Sempronius, who had brought back his legions by land the 
whole distance from Lilybaeum to Messana in Sicily, and 
again from Rhegium to the Po. As Scipio had not yet re- 
covered from his wound, Sempronius assumed the command 
of the combined forces; and, finding himself much superior 
in number to Hannibal, was as eager as his opponent for a 
general engagement. In the battle which followed, the 
victory was decided by the superior tactics of Hannibal. 
He posted his brother Mago with a chosen band in ambush, 
and the latter threw the enemy into confusion by a timely 
onset on their rear. Great numbers of the Romans were 
cut off; the survivors escaped in two directions, Scipio 
retiring upon Ariminum, and Sempronius into Etruria. 
After this success, which caused the wavering tribes of the 
Gauls to espouse his cause, Hannibal took his winter-quar- 
ters among them, and busied himself levying fresh troops, 
while he awaited the approach of spring. 

Battle of Lake Trasimenus (b. c. 217). — As soon as 
the season permitted the renewal of military operations, 
Hannibal advanced into the heart of Italy, carrying devastation 
along his line of march. The two consuls for this year were 
Cn. Servilius and C. Flaminius. The latter was the author of 
the celebrated Agrarian law which had occasioned the Gal- 
lic war, and in his first consulship had gained a great victory 
over the Insubrian Gauls. Him Hannibal artfully drew into a 
defile, where the Romans, hemmed in between rocky heights 
and Lake Trasimenus, were simultaneously attacked in front, 
in flank, and in the rear. Polybius tells us that they suf- 
fered themseves to be slaughtered without resistance. But, 
according to Livy, despair revived their courage; and 
both parties fought with such fury, that none of the 
combatants noticed an earthquake which then took place, 
and destroyed considerable portions of several Italian cities. 
During the fight, Flaminius was slain, and the Romans dis- 
pirited by this accident, gave way and fled. Some of them, 
closely pressed by the victorious enemy, threw themselves 
into the lake, whilst others, climbing over the mountains, 



B. C. 2l8-20l. SECOND PUNIC WAR. 41 3 

fell into the hands of the foe whom they sought to avoid. 
1 5,000 at least were cut to pieces ; an equal number were taken 
prisoners, and only a few thousand escaped by different 
roads to Rome, where the news of this disastrous battle 
caused universal consternation. 

Fabius Cunctator. — In this crisis, Q. Fabius Maximus 
was appointed dictator, who with a fresh army of 4 legions 
went in quest of Hannibal. The latter, disappointed of aid 
from the Etruscans, had marched off into the country of the 
Samnites. Receiving no more effectual aid here than in 
Etruria, he now sought to win over to his side the Greek 
population of Southern Italy. But even the Greeks were 
more drawn to the kindred Romans, than to the alien race of 
Tyre and Carthage. The people of Neapolis and Psestum 
stripped the gold from their temples, and brought it to the 
senate. Hiero of Syracuse sent money and stores. Nor was 
the dictator wanting to himself. He garrisoned the strong 
places, cleared the country of supplies around the enemy's 
camp, and harassed him by constant movement. But, 
faithful to his policy, whereby he won his illustrious surname 
of Ciinctator (the lingerer), he invariably declined any deci- 
sive engagement. If he ever allowed the soldiers to fight, 
it was only in slight skirmishes, and so cautiously that his 
troops generally had the advantage. 

Hannibal's Stratagem. — By this wise conduct, Fabius 
gradually revived the confidence of the Romans. On one 
occasion, he saved his master of the horse from certain de- 
feat ; on another, he succeeded in enclosing the Carthagin- 
ians within a valley, so as to leave them no escape. Han- 
nibal, thereupon, had 2000 oxen collected together, caused 
bundles of dry wood tied to their horns, to be set on fire, at 
night, and then ordered these animals to be driven towards 
the narrow passes which were guarded by the enemy. The 
oxen, feeling the fire, became furious, and ran wildly in every 
direction. Fabius, apprehensive of an attack, dared not 
quit his intrenchments, whilst they who guarded the defile, 
still more frightened than the rest, abandoned their post 
and fled. Hannibal seized the opportunity, and escaped 
with his whole force without loss. 

Battle of Cannae (b. c. 216). — The dictatorship of the 
Cunctator expired all too soon. Fabius was replaced by 
two consuls. The nominee of the senate, Paulus ^milius, 
was well disposed to follow the policy of his predeces- 



4H ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

sor in command ; but Terentius Varro represented the blind 
impatience of the people, who thought that to bring the 
war to a close, it needed only a man of energy and decision 
at the head of an overwhelming force. So, during the win- 
ter and spring, an army had been raised of little less than 
90,000 men. The two consuls held command on alternate 
days. But they disagreed, Varro constantly threatening, 
and Paulus as regularly declining, to give battle to Hannibal, 
whom they had followed to the broad plain of Cannae, a 
field chosen by himself as favorable to the action of his 
Numidian cavalry. At last, Varro, relying on his superior 
numbers, which were double those of the Carthaginians, 
determined to attack. In his blind confidence, he advanced 
in a massive column, instead of extending his line to surround 
the weaker enemy. Hannibal allowed him to penetrate to 
his centre, and then enveloped his entangled and serried 
ranks with clouds of horse and light-armed infantry. The 
Romans were routed. Their loss, Polybius tells us, am- 
mounted to 70,000. Among the slain were the consul Pau- 
lus, both the consuls of the preceding year, 21 tribunes, 80 
senators, and several thousand knights. 

Roman Fortitude. — Far from despairing, the Romans 
immediately raised new legions. While the enrollment was in 
progress, Varro returned in dejection to the city. Instead of 
disgracing or even upbraiding him, the senate went forth to 
meet him, and voted him theirthanks for not having despaired 
of the republic. They intrusted him again with a command, 
and sent him back, at the head of a consular army, to the 
very country which had been the scene of his discomfiture. 

Hanibal's Inactivity. — Hannibal's officers urged him 
to advance at once on Rome. " Thou knowest how to con- 
quer, " Marhabal said to him ; " but thou doest not know how 
to improve thy victory. Only send me with the cavalry, and 
within five days thou shalt sup in the Capitol." But Hannibal 
understood better the difficulties of the enterprise. Cannae 
was 200 miles from the city ; and the route lay across moun- 
tains and rivers, as well as through Roman colonies and gar- 
risons. He knew that his allies would insist upon lingering 
on the way to kill, and burn, and amass plunder. Even 
if he reached the walls, what profit would it be to him ? It 
was chiefly to his cavalry that he owed his previous victories. 
But of what use would that be in a siege ? With his dimin- 
ished infantry, 6000 of whom had fallen at Cannae, without 



fe. C. 2l8-20I. SECOND MJNlC WA&, ^jr 

ammunition or machines, how could he succeed in storming the 
large, populous, and well-fortified city of Rome ? To surprise 
it now;, as in the time of Brennus, was altogether impossible. 

Hannibal vainly awaits Reinforcements. — Hanni- 
bal therefore resigned himself to the task of stirring up dis- 
affection among the people of Southern Italy, while await- 
ing assistance from Carthage, and gradually providing the 
means of laying siege to Rome. Unhappily for him, there 
prevailed at Carthage great political dissensions. The aris- 
tocratic party, headed by Hanno, was little disposed to make 
great exertions in behalf of the popular champion ; the 
wealthy traders sought rather to protect their commercial in- 
terests on every coast of the Mediterranean, than expend blood 
and treasure on a rash adventure in the heart of Italy ; in fine, 
the government found sufficient occupation in maintaining its 
hold on Spain and protecting its gold mines in that country. 

Hannibal at Capua (b. c. 216-215). — Hannibal, being 
thus left to himself, and in great need of money, proposed to 
the Roman senate to ransom those of their countrymen who 
were prisoners in his hands ; but his offers were steadily re- 
jected. At the close of the campaign, he chose for his win- 
ter-quarters the luxurious city of Capua, the gates of which 
were opened to him by the popular party. The period of 
repose which followed, says Livy, was fatal to the invaders. 
Hannibal's hardy veterans, who had marched so far and won 
so many victories under his banner, were demoralized by 
the seductions of a dissipated city ; the iron bands of disci- 
pline were relaxed, and the spell was broken, which had 
seemed hitherto to render his arms invincible. In contra- 
diction to this statement — a favorite theme of rhetorical ex- 
aggerations in later ages, it may be alleged that those sol- 
diers, who, according to Livy, were so much enervated by 
their stay in Capua, continued to fight with their usual bra- 
very, if not always * with the same success, took cities in the 

* Cor. Nepos, Justin, and Polybius, maintain that Hannibal was 
constantly victorious in his Italian campaigns, and was conquered 
for the first time at the battle of Zama, in Africa. On the con- 
trary, Livy and Plutarch mention several defeats sustained by him 
in Italy. Perhaps these defeats may have been very inconsider- 
able, and owing to such circumstances as could not impair his mil- 
itary reputation. But, without admitting the Carthaginian leader 
to have been blameless, or suspecting Livy's sincerity, it may be 
said that the latter betrays a tendency to lessen the merit of Hanni- 
bal, both in his public achievements and in his personal character. 



416 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 



very sight of the Romans, and maintained themselves in 
Italy fourteen years longer, till they were recalled by orders 
from Carthage. 

Cause of Hannibal's Failure. — The real cause, there- 
fore, of Hannibal's failure was neither his remissness after 
Cannae, nor the sojourn of his troops at Capua, but rather 
the want of proper support from home. Whilst the Romans 
easily recruited their armies, he was left destitute of neces- 
sary succors and reinforcements. 

He stirs up Fresh Enemies.— Far from wasting his 
time at Capua, Hannibal now applied himself more indus- 
triously than ever to the execution of his long-cherished 
plan — that of arming Italy itself against the Romans, and 
crushing the ruling power by means of its own subjects. To 
this object his attention, henceforth, was directed. Nor did 
he rely on the cooperation of the Italians alone. He con- 
cluded treaties offensive and defensive with the king of Mac- 
edon, and with the Syracusans — two transactions which 
would have placed Rome in the greatest danger, had the 
chief rulers at Carthage and Hannibal's new allies acted with 
more prudence and vigor. 

Campaigns of b. c. 215-212. — Taught by reverses, the 
Romans after Cannae altered their tactics ; and, instead of op- 
posing to Hannibal one grand army, with separate corps, 
they hemmed in his movements, guarded the most impor- 
tant towns with strong garrisons, and kept up an army in 
every province of Italy to check the rising disposition to re- 
volt. They, moreover, sent large forces to Spain, Sardinia, 
Sicily, and Macedonia ; and, by giving Carthage and her al- 
lies occupation elsewhere, prevented them from sending ef- 
fectual aid to Hannibal, Thus the latter was deprived both 
of reinforcements and of an opportunity for striking a de- 
cisive blow, so that, despite his boldness and surprising ac- 
tivity, the three campaigns which followed the battle of Can- 
nae, were undistinguished by any important event. 

Syracuse defended by Archimedes. — At the death 
of Hiero, the faithful ally of Rome, Syracuse espoused the 
cause of the Carthaginians. Thereupon the consul Marcel- 
lus laid siege to that city both by sea and land. His attacks 
were vigorous and unremitting ; but, though he brought 
many powerful military engines against the walls, his efforts 
were rendered wholly unavailing by the superior skill and 
science of Archimedes, which were employed on the side of 



c. 218-201. 



SECOND PUNIC WAR. 



417 



the besiegers. This wonderful man, the greatest geometri- 
cian of antiquiy, invented a multitude of engines, which 
threw missive weapons and enormous stones with such 
rapidity and violence, that they crushed whatever came in 
their way, and forced the besiegers to keep at a distance 
from the wall, without being able to make either a mine or 
an assault. At sea, the peril was still greater. Archimedes 
had placed behind the walls strong machines, which, laying 
hold of the Roman vessels by means of grappling-irons, lifted 
them up, and after making them whirl about with rapidity, 
sunk them, or dashed them to pieces against the rocks.* 




Marcellus, repelled on all sides, was obliged to expect from 
blockade and starvation a success which he could not obtain 
by open force. 

Storming of Syracuse (b. c. 212). — As the communi- 
cations of the besieged by sea were almost entirely open, the 
Romans seemed to be, at the end of three years, as far from 



*The story that Archimedes set the Roman ships on fire by the 
reflected rays of the sun, is probably a fiction. 



41$ ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

their object as on the first day, when a common soldier, 
having noticed a part of the wall more accessible than the 
rest and calculated its height by counting the stones, 
informed Marcellus that with a ladder of a certain size it might 
be easily scaled. The Roman commander, profiting by the 
suggestion, effected an entrance at this point, during the 
night which followed a great festival, and thus made himself 
master of Epipolae. Shortly afterward, the treachery of a 
Spanish leader of mercenaries in the Syracusan service 
opened to Marcellus the gates of Achradina ; and, in the gen- 
eral attack which ensued, the whole city fell into the power 
of the Romans, and was given up to pillage. 

Death of Achimedes. — Whilst confusion reigned with- 
out, Archimedes, in his closet, was wholly intent on the exami- 
nation of a geometrical figure. A Roman soldier suddenly 
appeared, and commanded the mathematician to accompany 
him to Marcellus. Archimedes desired his visitor to wait 
a moment, till he had solved his problem and completed its 
demonstration. But the soldier, taking this answer for an 
insult, drew his sword, and killed him on the spot. Marcel- 
lus was sensibly afflicted at the melancholy event, and not 
only gave a solemn funeral to Archimedes, but even erected 
a monument* to his memory. 

Spoils of Syracuse. — Besides the money in the public 
treasury, which was set apart for the coffers of the state, Mar- 
cellus carried off many Syracusan works of art, to grace his 
own triumph and adorn the temples at Rome. This was the 
first instance of a practice which afterward became so general ; 
it gave great offence not only to the Greeks of Sicily, but 
to a large party at Rome itself. 

Recovery of Capua (b. c. 211). — The revolt of Capua 
had greatly exasperated the Romans; and, inB. c. 212, the 
two consuls drew their forces together for the purpose of 
reducing it. Hannibal flew to its relief, and compelled the 
besiegers to withdraw, but could not force them to a general 
engagement. In the spring, whilst he was himself attacking 
the citadel of iTarentum, the Romans reappeared before 
Capua, and in an incredibly short space of time surrounded 
it with a double line of intrenchments. Once more coming 
to its relief, Hannibal assaulted the Roman camp from with- 

*Cicero, when questor lin Sicily (b. c. 75), found this tomb near 
one of the gates of the city, almost hid among briers, and for- 
gotten by the Syracusans. 



B. C. 2l8-2ol. SECOND PUNIC WAR. A^g 

out, whilst the garrison cooperated with him by a vigorous 
sally. But both attacks were repulsed. Thus foiled, Hanni- 
bal swept to the north; and, hoping to draw the Roman 
forces from Capua, showed himself before Rome. But this 
daring scheme was also frustrated. There was at the time a 
considerable body of troops within the walls ; and these 
were reinforced with only a portion of the besieging army at 
Capua, there being left before it a force amply sufficient to 
prosecute the siege. As Hannibal had no means of effecting 
anything against Rome itself, after ravaging the country to 
the very ramparts, he marched sullenly away, Capua soon 
after surrendered. Its punishment was terrible. Seventy of 
her senators fell under the axes of the lictors ; 300 men of 
rank were thrown into chains ; the rest of the people were 
sold as slaves, and the city with its territory was given over 
to Roman occupants. When two years later, Tarentum was 
retaken, it was treated with almost equal severity ; 30,000 of 
its inhabitants were sold into bondage. 

Roman Alliances with the ^Etolians, with 
Attalus and Antiochus.— The same year that she retook 
Capua, Rome secured herself against the aggressions of 
Philip of Macedon by means of a treaty with the ./Etolians, 
whereby those lawless brigands were allowed to seize and 
retain any Greek town which they could conquer, the slaves, 
the money, and the rest of the plunder being allotted to 
Rome as her share of the spoil. At the same time, the 
republic engaged in alliance with nations still farther east, and 
contrived to keep Philip constantly occupied with the arms 
of the kings of Pergamus and Syria, as also with those of the 
barbarians on his northern frontier. Thus the aid promised 
Hannibal by the king of Macedon, was deferred from year to 
year ; and, at length, after the victory of the Metaurus, the 
Macedonians for a time abandoned him, and entered into 
bonds of amity with the Romans. 

The War in Spain (b. c. 228-212). — While the consul 
P. Cornelius Scipio, the first year of the war, was confronting 
Hannibal in the Cisalpine, his brother Cneius was in Spain 
with part of the consular army. The next year Publius him- 
self crossed over into Spain, where he found that Cneius had 
already obtained a firm footing. Henceforth, both brothers 
made great conquests over the Carthaginians. Emboldened 
by their success, they divided their troops, in order to com- 
plete within a shorter time the reduction of the country. This 



4 20 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

imprudent step was the cause of their ruin. The Carthagin- 
ian generals, combining their efforts, overthrew the two 
brothers separately, and both the Scipios were slain (b. c. 
112). Yet their presence in Spain had probably saved 
Rome. For, if the Carthaginians had maintained the undis- 
puted mastery of that country, they might have concentrated 
all their efforts to support Hannibal, who would thus have 
been able to compel the Romans to submit. The hero who 
was to retrieve the affairs of Rome in Spain, was no other 
than young Publius Scipio, the son of Cornelius, whose 
defeat and death have just been mentioned. 

Youth of Publius Scipio Africanus. — Africanus is 
perhaps, with the exception of J. Caesar, the greatest man 
that Rome ever produced. From his youth, he acquired in 
an extraordinary degree the confidence and admiration of 
his countrymen. His enthusiastic mind led him to believe 
that he was a special favorite of heaven; and he never 
engaged in any business without firstgoing to the Capitol, to 
commune there for some time with tne protecting deities of 
Rome. For all his undertakings he alleged the divine 
approval, firmly believing in the revelations he asserted had 
been vouchsafed to him — a belief deepened by the marvel- 
lous success which attended all his exertions. At the battle 
of the Ticinus, when only 17 years of age, as previously men- 
tioned, he saved his father's life. At Cannae, he was already a 
tribune of the soldiers ; and, along with Appius Claudius, 
was chosen to command the remnants of the army which 
fled for refuge to Canusium. In B. c. 212, though yet so 
far from the legal age, he was elected edile. Finally, when 
the Romans, anxious to retrieve their affairs in Spain, were 
assembled to choose a proconsul for that country, and none 
of the experienced generals presented himself for the difficult 
post, Scipio, then barely in his 24th year offered to go, and 
so communicated his confidence to all that he was appointed 
by acclamation (b. c. 210). 

Africanus in Spain (b. c. 210-206). — On reaching 
Spain, Scipio found the three Carthaginian commanders 
engaged in separate enterprises at a great distance from one 
another ; and he resolved to avail himself of this opportunity 
to surprise New Carthage. Giving the fleet in charge to his 
friend Laslius, whom alone he acquainted with his project, 
he himself rapidly marched his land-forces against the city, 
surprised it, and obtained possession not only of the rich 



B. C. 2I8-20I. SECOND PUNIC WAR. 



421 



stores accumulated there, but also of the Spanish hos- 
tages therein detained. These he treated with studied kind- 
ness, and restored without ransom, thus winning- the support 
of many Spanish tribes. With the assistance of these allies, 
Scipio the following year defeated Hasdrubal, who sought 
refuge in northern Spain ; and, before long, the youthful 
Roman general, by his personal influence even more than 
by force of arms, made himself master of nearly the whole 
peninsula. In 206, he returned to Rome to sue for the 
consulship. 

Defeat of Marcellus (b. c. 208). — The summer of 
B. C. 209 had witnessed the return of the Samnites and Lu- 
canians to Roman allegiance. The recovery of Tarentum 
speedily followed. However Hannibal, who thus saw his 
supporters fall away one after another, was cheered in 208 
by a brilliant success. He drew the two consuls Crispinus 
and Marcellus into an ambush, in which the latter was killed 
and the former mortally wounded. But his chief object now 
was only to maintain himself in the south of Italy, until his 
brother Hasdrubal should appear in the north, an event to 
which he had anxiously looked forward. 

Hasdrubal's March into Italy (b. c. 208-207).—- 
After his defeat at the hands of Scipio, Hasdrubal had at last 
set out for Italy. To avoid the Romans, who held the direct 
road, he crossed the Pyrenees near their western extremity, 
plunged into the heart of Gaul, where he spent the winter, 
and in the spring of 207 prepared to descend into Italy. The 
two consuls for this year were C. Claudius Nero and M. Livius ; 
the former kept a watch upon Hannibal in the south ; the 
latter took up his quarters at Ariminum to oppose Has- 
drubal. More fortunate than his brother, this chieftain 
experienced little loss in crossing the Alps, the season 
being favorable and the Gauls friendly. But, instead of 
pushing rapidly forward, he lost much precious time under 
the walls of Placentia. At last, leaving this place behind him 
unsubdued, he advanced southward until he came in front 
of the camp of Livius, near Sena. 

Battle of the Metaurus (b. c. 207). — From this 
position, Hasdrubal sent to inform Hannibal of his line of 
march ; but his letters, falling into the hands of Nero, be- 
trayed his plans to the Roman general. The latter acted 
with promptitude and resolution. Making a feint to deceive 
Hannibal, Nero suddenly quitted his camp with 7,000 picked 



422 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

men, and hastened * to join Livius, whom he urged to make 
an immediate attack. Hasdrubal, however, noticed that his 
enemy had been reinforced, and retired behind the Metau- 
rus. There he was brought to bay, and forced to give bat- 
tle. A flank attack under Nero decided the combat. The 
invaders were completely routed ; and Hasdrubal, seeing the 
battle irretrievably lost, rushed into the midst of the enemy, 
and fell as became the son of Hamilcar and the brother of 
Hannibal. Nero now hastened back to Apulia almost as 
speedily as he had come, and announced to Hannibal the de- 
feat and death of his brother by throwing into his camp the 
severed head of Hasdrubal. " I recognize, " said Hannibal 
sadly, " the doom of Carthage. " Still he maintained him- 
self in Italy until the year B. c. 203, when his countrymen 
recalled him for the defence of Carthage. 

Scipio in Africa (b. c. 204-203). — Towards the end of 
B. c. 206, by the unanimous votes of all the centuries, Scipio was 
elected consul for the following year, although he had not 
yet filled the office of pretor, and was only 30 years of age. 
He was anxious to carry the war at once into Africa, con- 
sidering this the surest means both to remove Hannibal from 
Italy, and to close the long contest. Accordingly, as soon 
as he had raised a sufficient armament, he sailed for the 
African shores, and landed, not far from Utica. 

He was immediately joined by Masinissa, king of the 
Massylians, or "Western Numidians, who rendered him the 
most important services in the war. Scipio commenced his 
campaign by laying siege to Utica, but soon was confronted 
in his quarters, under the walls of that city, by two numer- 
ous armies, the one under Hasdrubal, son of Gisco, the 
other under Syphax, king of the Massaesylians, or Eastern 
Numidians. Learning from his spies, that, in these two ar- 
mies, the tents of the soldiers were composed only of reeds 
and withered branches, he resolved to destroy them by fire 
during the night. He directed Masinissa to burn the 
camp of Syphax, and he himself advanced against that of 
Hasdrubal. 

Everything succeeded according to his wishes. Not only 
the conflagration spread with the utmost rapidity through 
the camp of Syphax, but most of the Numidians were put 
to the sword, or perished in the flames, or were crushed in 

* He marched 250 miles in six or seven days. 



B. C. 2IS-20I. SECOND PUNIC WAR. 



423 



the narrow gateways as they strove to escape. A similar 
disaster soon befell the Carthaginians. They had perceived 
the fire in the camp of Syphax ; and, attributing it to acci- 
dent, several of them ran confusedly to assist their allies. 
On the way they were cut off by Sc*ipio. This general then 
attacked the camp itself; and, finding it unguarded, con- 
signed it to the flames. Of the enemy, 40,000 perished in 
that dreadful night ; more than 5,000 were made prisoners ; 
and only a few escaped with Hasdrubal and Syphax. Shortly 
after, these two commanders reappeared at the head of 
30,000 men, but were again completely defeated. 

Recall of Hannibal (b. c. 203). — These repeated dis- 
asters so alarmed the Carthaginians, that they recalled Han- 
nibal. He quitted Italy in B. c. 203, to the great joy of the 
Romans. For more than 15 years had he carried on the 
war in that country, devastating it from one extremity to the 
other ; and, during all this time, his superiority in the field 
had been uncontested. The Romans calculated that, in 
these fifteen years, their losses in the field alone amounted fully 
to 300,000 men. Hannibal reluctantly quitted the land where 
he had won so many victories. Before embarking, he sus- 
pended in the temple of Juno, at the extremity of the Lacinian 
promontory, a number of bronze tablets* on which were re- 
corded in the Punic and Greek languages, the chief events of 
his Italian campaigns. In all of these, as Polybius remarks, 
shine his eminent courage, prudence, and ability ; but espec- 
ially in the latter, when beset by all difficulties, are his great- 
ness of mind, fertility of genius, and wonderful skill as a 
leader, conspicuous. 

Battle of Zama (b. c. 202). — Hannibal sailed from 
Crotona in the autumn of B. c. 203. He departed unmo- 
lested, landed at Leptis, and spent the winter at Hadrume- 
tum. His arrival revived the hopes of the Carthaginians, 
who now looked forward to a favorable termination of the 
war. Hannibal, however, formed a truer estimate of the real 
state of affairs. He saw that the loss of a battle would be 
the ruin of Carthage, and he was therefore anxious to con- 
clude a peace before it was too late. He asked for a per- 
sonal interview with Scipio. It took place on an eminence 
between the two armies ; and the generals, on meeting, are 

* These were seen by Polybius, and may have served to correct 
the boastful narratives of the Roman annalists. 



424 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIII. 

said to have gazed for some time at each other in silent ad- 
miration. Hannibal spoke first and with great dignity ; but 
being unable to obtain any abatement of the hard conditions 
laid down by Scipio, he was forced to continue the war. Into 
the details of the campaign, which are related very differently, 
it is unnecessary to enter. The decisive battle was fought 
Oct. 1 9, on the Bagradas, not far from the city of Zama. In it 
Hannibal, accordingto the express testimony of his antagonist, 
displayed all his eminent qualities. But he was now particu- 
larly deficient in that formidable cavalry which had so often 
decided the victory in his favor ; his elephants were rendered 
unavailing by the skillful management of Scipio ; and, not- 
withstanding the heroic exertions of his veteran infantry, the 
battle ended in his complete defeat — a result due rather to the 
valor and confidence of the well-disciplined % legions, than to 
any superiority of their chief over his rival. Yet, Scipio was 
thereby elevated to the highest pinnnacle of glory, as the 
conqueror of the conqueror of Trasimenus and Cannae. 

End of the War (b. c. 201). — Scipio used his victory 
with moderation. Carthage lay at last at the feet of Rome, 
and there were many who urged her entire destruction after 
the manner of Veii, or the treatment, little less severe, which 
had been inflicted on Capua and Tarentum. But Scipio 
withstood the clamor of his revengeful countrymen. He 
abstained from demanding the delivery of Hannibal, and 
allowed Carthage to retain her own laws and her African 
territory. But she was required to surrender all her ships of 
war except 10 triremes, and all her elephants ; to acknowl- 
edge Masinissa as king of Numidia ; to give up all claims 
to foreign possessions ; to make no war, even in Africa, 
without the consent of Rome ; to pay 10,000 talents of sil- 
ver in the course of fifty years, and to deliver 100 hostages. 
Hannibal himself proved to his countrymen the necessity of 
submission. The terms were accepted, and in the following 
year, b. c. 201, peace was formally concluded. 

Triumph of Scipio (b. c. 201). — Scipio then returned to 
Italy, and entered Rome in triumph. He was received with 
universal enthusiasm ; the surname of Africanus was con- 
ferred upon him, % and the people, in their gratitude, were 
anxious to distinguish him with the most extraordinary 
marks of honor. It is related that they were ready to make 
him consul and dictator for life ; but he prudently declined 
all these invidious distinctions. 



B. C. 20I. END OF THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. 425 

Last Years and Death of Hannibal. — After the 
battle of Zama, Hannibal was, for a time, treated with con- 
sideration by his countrymen. But, incurring the suspicions 
of the aristocratic faction at Carthage, he withdrew first to 
Tyre, and thence to the court of Antiochus the Great, whom 
» he emboldened by his very presence to a war against the 
Romans. His last asylum was the court of Prusias, king of 
Bithynia. The Romans demanding from this prince the 
surrender of his illustrious guest, the latter swallowed a 
draught of poison, B. C. 183. He was 63 years of age. By 
general consent, he is looked upon as the most eminent of 
ancient commanders. 

Cause of the Success of the Romans. — The Romans 
were devout believers in Fortune ; there was no deity to 
whom they paid their vows more assiduously. To Fortune 
they fondly referred their preservation from destruction by 
the Etruscans under Porsena, by the Volscians under Corio- 
lanus, by the Gauls under Brennus, by the Samnites under 
Pontius, by the Greeks under Pyrrhus, and now, lastly, by 
the Carthaginians under Hannibal. But there is no doubt 
that this continued success was really due to their splendid 
military organization, and especially to their own superiority 
of character. They had a strength and firmness of mind 
which gave them confidence in themselves, and in one an- 
other. They had a sense of mutual dependence and of 
brotherly feeling. Above all, they were conspicuous for 
self-command ; and, side by side with this quality, grew up 
the power to command others, and the consciousness that 
they were fit to rule mankind. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

The Romans Commence the Conquest of the East, 
b. c. 200-188. 

War with Philip of Macedon. — The Roman republic 
was now the most powerful state in the ancient world. Her 
legions had been trained to war by long struggles with Gauls, 
Spaniards, and Africans, and were superior to all other troops 
in discipline, experience, and valor. She now naturally 



426 Ancient rome. Chapi. xiv. 

turned her eyes toward the east, whose effeminate nations 
seemed to offer an easy conquest. 

About the time of the battle of Cannae, Philip of Macedon, 
as before related, had promised his help to Hannibal against 
the Romans, and 4,000 men sent by him had fought on the 
side of Carthage, at Zama. Now that Rome was disengaged 
from her gigantic struggle, it was determined to chastise 
him. The first two years of the war, B. c. 200-199, no im- 
portant success was achieved. But, under the consul T. 
Quinctius Flamininus, who took the command in b. c. 198, 
the war was carried on with energy and vigor. Philip was 
forced to shut himself up with his army in his stronghold of 
Pella, and Rome assumed the protectorate of the Achaean 
League. The war, however, was not brought to a close un- 
til the following year, when the two armies met at Cynos- 
cephalse (dog's head), a range of hills near Scotussa, in 
Thessaly. 

Battle of Cynoscephal^e (b. c. 197). — The Macedo- 
nian army was disposed in two phalanxes, each of 8,000 
men. The first of these broke through the lines of the 
legions, which, however, closed in upon it again with no 
material loss ; the other was attacked while in process of 
formation, and scattered to the winds. Philip's defeat was 
so complete that he sued for peace, and was glad to accept 
from the Romans easier terms than he could have obtained 
from his enemies nearer home. It was not the policy 01 J 
Rome to crush men who might hereafter be useful to her 
as allies. She required him to pay the sum of 2,000 talents, 
deliver up his galleys, give his son Demetrius as a hostage, 
and evacuate all the Grecian cities which were garrisoned by 
his troops. 

Declaration of Grecian Independence (b. c. 196). 
—For a year after the battle of Cynoscephalae, the Greeks 
did not know what the terms of peace were. The time ar- 
rived for the Isthmian games. An immense concourse met 
to celebrate them, anxious also to learn their future desti- 
nies. Thither came Flamininus, who caused it to be pro- 
claimed that the senate, and T. Quinctius, its general, had 
liberated the whole of Greece from the power of Macedonia. 
The Greeks, in a frenzy of joy, pressed forward eager to 
kiss the hands of their deliverer, and covered him with such 
profusion of garlands and crowns of flowers, as to put him 
in some danger of being suffocated. Little did they reflect 



B. C. I9I-I9O. WAR VVlfH ANTIOCHUS. 42^ 

that they had but changed masters. Yet, under the pro- 
tectorate of Rome, Greece enjoyed a period of repose, if 
not the' brightest, the happiest perhaps in the course of her 
annals. 

, War with Antiochus (b. c. 191). — King Antiochus 
III of Syria, glorying in some successes gained over the 
Bactrians and Indians, and exulting in the title of Great, 
was bent upon restoring the empire of a Cyrus or a Xerxes. 
Encouraged by the presence of Hannibal and the invitation 
of the ^Etolians, he ventured to erect fortresses on the Euro- 
pean shores of the Hellespont ; and, in defiance of the threats 
of Rome, advanced into the heart of Greece. But, at Ther- 
mopylae, he was encountered and driven back across the 
sea by the consul Acilius. 

The Romans in Asia. — In the following year, b. c. 191, 
the Roman legions, under Lucius Scipio and Africanus, first 
set foot in Asia. The forces of Antiochus were numerous, 
and they were commanded by Hannibal himself. But even 
he could make nothing of the wretched Asiatics who marched 
under his standards. They were scattered, like chaff before 
the wind, by the hardy warriors of Rome, fresh from the 
schools of Gaulish and Spanish warfare. Antiochus was 
soon reduced to sue for peace. 

Battle of Magnesia (b. c. 190). — As a preliminary 
condition of peace, the Romans commanded Antiochus to 
evacuate Asia Minor. He preferred to risk another battle. 
This was fought and won by Lucius Scipio, at Magnesia. 
In it, 30,000 Romans with hardly any loss overthrew 
60,000 Asiatics, of whom they slew 50,000. On that day the 
fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus at once yielded all that 
was required of him — his claim to Asia minor, his chariots, 
his elephants, his treasures, his fleet. He would doubtless 
have given up Hannibal also ; but the Carthaginian had al- 
ready made good his escape. 

Last Years and Death (b. c. 183) of Africanus. — 
Lucius Scipio brought back to Rome enormous treasures, 
and in imitation of his brother assumed the title of Asiaticus. 
But his treatment of Antiochus was denounced as too leni- 
ent. Lucius even was charged with malversation in his ac- 
counts ; whereupon Publius indignantly tore up the papers 
presented to him against his brother, which conduct brought 
upon him a charge of arrogance and incivism. Lucius was 
heavily fined. Africanus, on being accused before the peo- 



428 ' ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIV. 

pie, disdained to reply except by recounting his own signal 
services. Reminding the Romans that the day of his trial 
was the anniversary of the victory at Zama, he called upon 
them to desist from this miserable prosecution, and to fol- 
low him up to the Capitol, there to return thanks to the im- 
mortal gods. This bold stroke succeeded. But, disgusted 
with his countrymen, he withdrew to Liternum in Campania, 
and never again visited Rome. When he died, he forbade 
his remains to be carried thither for interment. 

Subjugation of the ^Etolian League (b. c. 189). — 
After the battle of Magnesia, the Romans were at leisure to 
punish the ^tolians for their connection with Antiochus. 
The consul M. Fulvius Nobilior took their chief town Am- 
bracia, after an obstinate resistance, and compelled them to 
submit. They were required to acknowledge the suprem- 
acy of Rome, to renounce all the conquests they had recently 
made, to pay an indemnity of 500 talents, and to engage in 
future to aid the Romans in all their wars. Henceforth the 
^Etolian League existed no longer but in name. 

Galatian War (b. c. 189). — Whilst Fulvius was redu- 
cing the ^Etolians, his colleague, Cn. Manlius Vulso, was in 
Asia Minor, whither he had been sent to arrange the affairs 
of that country. But he was dissatisfied with the subordi- 
nate part allotted to him, and longed for an opportunity of 
acquiring booty as well as military glory. This opportunity 
he found in the aid which the Galatians had lately afforded 
to Antiochus. He therefore attacked them, though he had 
no warrant for so doing from either the senate or the people, 
setting a precedent since followed by too many others of his 
nation. The Galatians were defeated in two battles ; and, as 
they had accumulated enormous wealth by their depreda- 
tions in Asia, this campaign greatly enriched Manlius and 
his legions. 

Settlement of Asia Minor (b. c. 188). — Manlius next 
devoted his attention to the settling of Asia Minor. To Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamus, he assigned Mysia, Lydia, and 
part of Caria, leaving to the Rhodians the rest of the last- 
named province together with Lycia and Pisidia. But these 
countries, henceforth, were in reality administered in depen- 
dence upon Rome, whose empire now virtually extended to 
the frontiers of Cilicia. 

Effects of the Eastern Wars. — Manlius returned 
to Rome in B. c. 187, and his triumph, like that of Scipio 



B. C. 191. CISALPINE GAUL A PROVINCE. 429 

Asiaticus, was most magnificent. But his soldiers, like Scip- 
io's, introduced into the city the luxuries of the east. These 
campaigns exercised a most pernicious influence upon the 
Romans, teaching them to love war for the sake of acquiring 
wealth, and prompting them to acts of robbery and rapine. 



CHAPTER XV. 

War with the Cisalpine Gauls, the Ligurians, Spaniards, 
Corsicans, Sardinians, and Istrians. — b. c. 200-175. 

Cisalpine Gaul made a Province (b. c. 191). — The 
second Punic war had hardly been concluded, when, at the 
instigation of a Carthaginian officer called Hamilcar, the 
Gauls on both sides of the Po, and the Ligurians, a race of 
hardy mountaineers inhabiting the upper Apennines and the 
Maritime Alps, took up arms against Rome. Their first exploit 
was the destruction of the Roman colony of Placentia, b. c. 
200. They next laid siege to Cremona, the other stronghold of 
the Roman dominion in Northern Italy. But, before its fall, 
there came assistance from Rome ; and the senate now deter- 
mined to accomplish the thorough subjugation of these tribes. 
The Insubres and the Cenomani, to the north of the Po, soon 
submitted ; but the Boii, though betrayed by their country- 
men, resisted for several years, and it was not till B. c. 191 
that the consul P. Cornelius Scipio Nasica received their 
final submission. He slaughtered them without mercy, and 
boasted tjiat he spared only old men and children. * Cisal- 
pine Gaul became a Roman province, and gradually adopted 
the language and customs of the conqueror. The submission 
of the people was secured by the foundation of new colonies 
and the formation of military roads. 

The Ligurian War. — The subjugation of the Ligurians 
proved a more difficult task. These hardy mountaineers 
continued the war, with intermissions, for a period of 80 years. 
The Romans often penetrated into the heart of Liguria ; but 

* Many of the Boii sought a new home on the banks of the Dan- 
ube. Multitudes of others were transplanted into Samnium and 
other depopulated tracts of Central Italy. 



430 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XV. 



seldom could effect anything beyond compelling the native, 
to disperse, and take refuge in their fastnesses, where the) 
were generally able to defy the invaders. 

Two Provinces Formed in Spain (b. c. 198).— In b. c 
198, the Romans, wishing to consolidate their dominioi 
in Spain, divided it into two provinces, Hispania Citerior ana 
Hispania Ulterior \ or Hither and Farther Spain, with the 
Iberus as the line of division. But it was little more than 
the eastern coast of the peninsula that was really subject to 
Rome. Over the Celtiberians in central Spain, the Lusita- 
nians in the west, and the Cantabrians and Gallsecians in the 
northwest, her supremacy was purely nominal. 

War in Spain (b. c. 197). — When these tribes perceived 
that the Romans intended to occupy the country permanent j >, 
they broke out into a general insurrection, and the pret ^ 
Sempronius was slain. Without cities, without commissc 
riat, without military organization of any kind, and withou: 
allies, they yet maintained a guerilla warfare, which long 
defied the power of Rome. Victory after victory was 
gained by the discipline and endurance of the legions, with 
little result except the devastation of the country. 

Victories of Cato in Spain (b. c. 195). — Conspicuous 
among the Roman leaders sent to put down the Spanish 
insurrection, was the consul M. Porcius Cato. On his 
arrival in Spain (b. c. 195), the whole country was in arms. 
But his military genius and indefatigable industry soon 
reestablished the superiority of Rome. He gained several 
decisive victories, contrived to set tribe against tribe, and 
took native mercenaries into his pay. The details of his 
campaigns are full of horrors. We read of the wholesale 
slaughter of men who had laid down their arms, of multi- 
tudes sold into captivity, or who put themselves to death to 
escape the doom of slavery. Cato boasted that he had 
destroyed more strongholds* in Spain, than he had spent 
days in that country. When he had reduced the whole of 
Hither Spain to a hollow, sullen, and temporary submission, 
he returned to Rome, and was rewarded with a triumph. 

End of the Spanish -War (b. c. 179). — The severe 
measures of Cato only exasperated the Spaniards. They 
again took up arms, and continued the resistance for the 
next 16 years, till Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus, the father 

*4oo between the Pyrenees and the Baetis. 



B. C. 234-149. CATO THE CENSOR. 43 1 

p of the celebrated tribunes, after gaining several brilliant vic- 
tories over the Celtiberians, granted them an honorable 
peace. By his wise measures and conciliatory conduct he 
won the affection of the natives, and induced them to submit 
I to Roman supremacy. 

Wars in Istria (b. c. 178). — The Istrians, near the head 
c of the Adriatic Gulf, had been conquered by the Romans 
just before the second Punic war. But their complete sub- 
jugation was now necessary, on account of their proximity to 
the newly-formed province of Cisalpine Gaul. Accordingly 
the consuls invaded Istria in B. c. 178, and in the following 
year the whole people was reduced to submission. 

The Sardinian and Corsican War (b. c. 177-175). — 

Trln B. c. 177, disturbances occurred in Corsica and Sardinia, 

} which were controlled by Sempronius Gracchus ; and so 

f . many of the natives were sold into slavery as to give rise to 

^ the proverb Sardi venales, or Sards to sell, for anything that 

was cheap and worthless. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

Cato the Censor (b. c. 234-149). 

His Youth. — The Romans were originally a hardy, 
industrious, and religious race, distinguished by unbending 
integrity and love of order. They lived with great frugality 
upon their small farms, which they cultivated with their own 
hands ; but they were stern and somewhat cruel, and cared 
little or nothing for literature and the arts. Of this old 
Roman character, M. Porcius Cato may be taken as one of 
the last representatives. He was born at Tusculum, in B. c. 
234. When still young, the death of his father put him in 
possession of a small estate, in the Sabine territory. Here 
he passed his boyhood, hardening his body by sharing the 
operations of the field. Near his estate was an humble cot- 
tage, once the habitation of M. Curius Dentatus, whose war- 
like exploits and simple character were still talked of in the 
neighborhood. The life of such' a man Cato resolved to 
imitate. 



432 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVI. 



His Pretorship and Consulship. — Cato took his first 
military lessons in the campaigns against Hannibal, and 
gained the favor and friendship of Fabius Maximus. He was 
also patronized by his neighbor L. Valerius Flaccus, a 
Roman noble, and a warm supporter of old manners, who 
had observed Cato's eloquence, as well as martial spirit. 
Through the favor of these patrons, he became questor in 
B. c. 204. Six years later, he was sent as pretor to Sar- 
dinia, where he at once reduced his principles to practice. 
He diminished official expenses, walked his circuits with a 
single attendant, and administered justice with strict impar- 
tiality. 

During his consulship, B. C. 195, occurred an event par- 
ticularly illustrative of Roman manners. In b. c. 215, at the 
height of the Punic war, a LtW had been passed that 
no woman should possess more than 3^ ounce of gold, nor 
wear garments of divers colors, nor drive a horse within a 
mile of the city, except for attending religious solemnities. 
Now that Rome abounded with Carthaginian wealth, two 
tribunes proposed the repeal of this law; but they were 
opposed by two of their colleagues, who had the hearty sup- 
port of Cato. But, in spite of the consul, the women carried 
the day. Worn out by importunities, the tribunes yielded ; 
and by the suffrage of all the tribes the hated law was 
abolished, and the ornaments restored. — Of Cato's warfare in 
Spain, during his consulship, an account has been already 
given. He also served in Greece under Glabrio, and dis- 
tinguished himself at the battle of Thermopylae, fought 
against Antiochus (b. c 191 J. 

His Censorship (b. c. 184). — Cato's censorship was a 
great epoch in his life. The duties of this office he dis- 
charged conscientiously, regardless of the enemies he was 
making. He repaired the aqueducts, paved the reservoirs, 
cleansed the drains, raised the rent paid by the pitblicani* 
and diminished the contract prices for public works. There 
can be no doubt that great abuses existed in the manage- 
ment of the finances, with which nothing but Cato's undaunted 
courage and administrative abilities could have successfully 
grappled. But he was disturbing a nest of hornets, whose 
buzz and attempts to sting disturbed the remainder of his 
life. No fewer than 44 times was he accused, and yet his 

^Farmers of the public revenues. 



B. C. '234-14$. CATO THE CENSOR. 433 

enemies prevailed against him but once. His enactments 
against luxury are mentioned as particularly severe and 
stringent. He levied a heavy tax upon expensive slaves, 
rich dresses, and costly furnitures. 

Cato's Punishment. of Flamininus. — The consul L. 
Flamininus, a brother of the illustrious T. Quinctius, took 
with him to the scene of war, in Cisalpine Gaul (b. c. 192), a 
beautiful Carthaginian boy, to whom he was much attached. 
With this youth Flamininus was once feasting, when a Boian 
chief came to the consul's tent to implore his protection. 
The boy being dejected at having left Rome without witness- 
ing the games of the gladiators, Flamininus, as a compensation 
for this, ordered an attendant to stab the Gaul, that his favorite 
might enjoy the dying agonies of the man. For such an 
atrocious deed Cato, during his censorship, degraded Flamin- 
inus from the senate. 

Cato's Character. — Throughout life, Cato's conduct 
was guided by prejudices against classes and nations whose 
influence was contrary, he thought, to the simplicity of the 
old Roman character. When Eumenes, king of Pergamus, 
visited Rome, Cato, indignant at the honors showered upon 
this royal personage by the senate and the great, refused to 
approach him, declaring that ' kings were naturally carnivor- 
ous animals.' He had an antipathy to physicians, because 
they were mostly Greeks, and unfit to be trusted with 
Roman lives. Diogenes, Critolaus, and Carneades having 
come to Rome as envoys from Athens, the last of these 
attracted much attention by advocating expediency as a 
virtue distinct from justice, and feared not to illustrate his 
doctrine by the example of the Romans themselves, who, 'if 
stripped of all that they had not justly gained,' he said, ' might 
return to their huts.' Fearing the effect of such teaching, 
Cato advised what the senate adopted : " Let the deputies 
as soon as possible be answered, and politely dismissed." 
Harsh, punctilious, censorious, and occasionally cruel, Cato 
entertained no feelings of humanity, where they opposed his 
stern sense of duty in advancing the interests either of the 
state, or of the farm, or of the household. The Roman law 
held slaves to be mere chattels ; Cato treated his as such, 
chastised them himself, thong in hand, for trifling acts of 
negligence, and sometimes had them put to death. When 
they were .worn out or useless, he sold them, or turned them 
out of doors. As years advanced, he sought gain with increas- 

87 



434 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVII. 



ing eagerness, and became a speculator, not only in slaves, 
but in buildings, artificial waters, and pleasure-grounds. 
From his public functions, however, he never would derive 
any profit ; he accepted no bribes, he reserved no booty to 
his own use. In old age, yielding to the popular current, he 
applied himself to the study of Greek literature, and became 
especially fond of Demosthenes and Thucydides. He was 
also, considering the age in which he lived, an orator and 
historian of repute. 



CHAPTER XVII. 

Fall of Macedon, Greece, and Carthage. 
— b. c. 171-146. 

Accession of Perseus in Macedon (b. c. 179). — The 
Romans, intoxicated with the extraordinary fortunes of their 
empire, now cast aside all moderation. Foreseeing the dan- 
ger to which their ruthless ambition and unbridled' greed of 
plunder exposed his kingdom, Philip of Macedon, had spent 
the latter years of his reign in preparing for resistance. To 
the men and money that he had provided, Perseus, his son, 
added the further security of alliances with the Greeks and 
Asiatic princes, as well as with the Thracian, Illyrian, and 
Celtic tribes which surrounded his dominions. By these 
measures Roman jealousy was aroused ; and, on the sug- 
gestion of Eumenes, king of Pergamus, Perseus was charged 
with injuring the allies of Rome. 

Conquest of Macedon (b. c. 171-168). — War was de- 
clared, and in the first encounter the consul Licinius was 
worsted. Perseus still offered to make terms, but was told 
that Rome would never negotiate with an armed enemy ; he 
must yield unconditionally. Thus driven to despair, he 
nerved himself for the contest, and for two years was able 
to prolong a successful resistance. But the struggle was 
brought to a close by the abilities of the consul L. ^Emilius 
Paulus. who, in B. c. 168, gained the decisive victory of 
Pydna, and broke the power of the ancient kingdom of 
Macedon. From the field of battle, Perseus fled to Pella, then 
to Amphipolis, and finally to the sanctuary of the sacred 



B. C. 151. FALL OF MACEDON. 435 

island of Samothrace, but was at length obliged to surrender 
himself to a Roman squadron. He was treated with courtesy, 
but was reserved to adorn the triumph of his conqueror ; 
and died a few years later, in prison. 

Macedonia a Roman Province (b. c. 151). — The Ro- 
mans transported all the chief people of Macedonia into 
Italy, and divided the country into four distinct governments, 
whose inhabitants were forbidden to intermarry. It was not 
till 17 years later (b. c. 151), that an unsuccessful revolt gave 
them the opportunity of finally destroying the independence 
of Macedonia, and converting it into a Roman province. 

Arbitrary Conduct of Rome. — After the war with 
Perseus, such of the allies of Rome who had manifested some 
sympathy for the last asserter of independence, were merci- 
lessly punished. Rhodes was deprived of her continental 
territory in Asia Minor. In Epirus, the gallant ./Emilius 
Paulus was made the instrument of a ruthless devastation. 
Having placed garrisons in her 70 towns, he razed them all 
to the ground in one day, and carried off 150,000 inhabitants 
as slaves. Eumenes, king of Pergamus, came in person to 
deprecate the anger of the senate, but was not allowed to en- 
ter Rome. The king of Bithynia, Prusias, gained admit- 
tance into the city only through mean and servile adulation ; 
he appeared with his head shaven, as a liberated slave. 

Treatment of the Ach^eans.— It was impossible to fix 
on the Achaean government any act of disloyalty, and yet 
their time too was come. On the evidence of various des- 
pots and traitors, but especially of one Callicrates, more than 
1,000 eminent Achaeans were charged with having had com- 
munication with Perseus. They were required to defend 
themselves from the charge, at Rome. Once in Italy, they 
were detained without trial, and placed under surveillance 
in distant provincial towns. 

Ach.ean Hostages (b. c. 1 67-1 51). — Among these hos- 
tages was the historian Polybius. He was permitted to re- 
side at Rome, in the house of ^Emilius Paulus, where he be- 
came the intimate friend of his son Scipio Africanus the 
Younger. After an exile of 17 years, the hostages, now only 
300 in number, were allowed to return to their homes — a 
favor due to the pity of Cato and the friendship of Scipio. 
When the senate discussed the question of their dismissal, 
Cato did not interpose till the end of a long debate, and then 
simply asked : " Have we nothing to do but to sit here all day 



436 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVII. 

debating whether a parcel of worn-out Greeks shall be car- 
ried to their graves here or in Achaia ? " and when Polybius 
begged, that, with the permission to depart they might be 
also restored to their former honors, Cato said smilingly, 
" Beware of returning to the den of the Cyclops to fetch 
away trifles. " 

The Achaean War (b. c. 147-146). — Soon after the re- 
turn of the exiles, the government of the league passed into 
the hands of Diaeus and Critolaus, who, forgetting their com- 
plete dependence on the Roman power, incited the Achaeans 
to attack Sparta. The reason alleged was, that, instead of 
consulting the League on a question of boundary, they had 
appealed to Rome. The Spartans, being too weak to resist, 
invoked Roman aid ; and, in B. c. 147, two commissioners 
came to settle the dispute. Treated with insolence by the 
Achaeans, they commanded that Sparta, Argos, and Corinth, 
should be restored to independence. This decision increased 
the discontent of the Achaeans. Serious riots occurred at 
Corinth, and the envoys narrowly escaped violence ; nor 
would Critolaus, now strategus of the League,, make any 
satisfaction. War being declared, the misguided patriots 
were defeated ; and the Romans, after vainly offering easy 
terms of submission, advanced to Corinth. 

Sack of Corinth (b. c. 146}. — A last battle fought un- 
der the walls of Corinth, brought the struggle to a close. 
The Achaeans were so confident of victory, that they placed 
their wives and children on the summit of the neighboring 
hills, to be spectators of the combat. They even prepared 
a large number of carts, to be loaded with the spoils of the 
enemy. How groundless their presumptuous confidence 
was, soon became manifest. Their army, quickly broken, 
gave way on all sides. Corinth was immediately evacuated, 
not only by the troops, but also by the greater part of the 
inhabitants. The few males who remained were put to the 
sword, the women and children sold, the treasures carried 
away, and the houses consigned to the flames.* Number- 
less were the bronzes, pictures, and statues destroyed on this 
occasion. Many, however, of the ancient masterpieces were 
saved by the conquerors. But so insensible was Mummius 
to their excellence, as to stipulate with the carriers who con- 

* A hundred years later, Corinth was replanted as a Roman 
colony, and rose once more to eminence. 



B. C. 146. FALL OF GREECE. 437 

veyed them to Rome, that, in case any were lost or injured 
on the way, they should be replaced by others of equal 
value ! 

Province of Achaia. — With the fall of Corinth vanished 
the last shadow of Grecian liberty. The whole country to 
the borders of Macedonia and Epirus, was formed into a 
Roman province, under the name of Achaia. Greece, how- 
ever, preserved a kind of sovereignty of which her conquer- 
ors could not deprive her, and to which even themselves 
rendered implicit homage. She continued to be the teacher 
of art, and the model of taste. It was to an assiduous study 
of the Greek language and literature, that Rome was indebted 
for the many orators, historians, and poets, whose writings 
shed such lustre on the Roman name, and rendered the 
Augustan age nearly equal to that of Pericles. 

Origin of the Third Punic War. — The same year 
that witnessed the ruin of Corinth, was signalized also by the 
destruction of Carthage. Owing to the reforms introduced 
by Hannibal and to the commercial activity of its people, 
this city had regained some degree of prosperity. Rome 
looked with a jealous eye upon its reviving power, and en- 
couraged Masinissa to make repeated aggressions upon its 
territory. Carthage dared not retaliate otherwise than by send- 
ing complaints to Rome, which the senate disregarded. At 
last the popular party obtaining more weight, a stand was 
taken against these encroachments. Thereupon a deputation, 
headed by Cato, was sent to mediate. The arbitration of 
these envoys was accepted by Masinissa, but rejected by 
the Carthaginians, who had no confidence in Roman justice. 

' Delendaest Carthago.' — Meanwhile the Roman dep- 
uties observed the warlike preparations of the Carthaginians, 
signs of which were everywhere visible. Above all the ( 
strength of Carthage and the extent of her population excited 
their wonder. Cato became convinced that she was far too 
powerful a neighbor ; and therefore never afterward spoke in 
the senate upon any subject, without ending his speech with 
the words, * Delenda est . Carthago, Carthage must be 
destroyed.' 

Roman Deceit.— Cato's opinion prevailed ; and a defeat 
suffered by Masinissa, who had invaded the Carthaginian 
territory, gave the Romans the pretext for which they were 
waiting. War was declared, and 80,000 men, under the con- 
suls Marcius Censorinus and Manlius Nepos, were dispatched 



433 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVII. 



to Africa. This move led to a change in the government at 
Carthage; and the aristocratical party, again in power, sought 
by unconditional obedience to avert impending ruin. First 
they sent 300 hostages of noble birth to Sicily, where they 
were to know the further orders of the senate. But, here, the 
communication was still deferred. Arrived at Utica, the 
consuls first required the surrender of that city; they next 
informed the Carthaginians, that, as their state would hence- 
forth be under the protection of Rome, munitions of war 
were no longer necessary, and must therefore be surrended. 
The Punic government yielded to this demand also, and 
brought to the Roman camp 200,000 stand of arms with 2,000 
catapults. Thinking the Carthaginians now totally defence- 
less, the consuls finally threw off the mask, and announced 
the decision of the senate: "That Carthage must be de- 
stroyed, but that its inhabitants were at liberty to build for 
themselves another city, on any site ten miles inland." 

Preparations of the Carthaginians, (b ; c. 149). — 
This terrible announcement filled the Carthaginians with 
rage, and they resolved to perish rather than submit to their 
perfidious foe. The popular party again rose to power, and 
efforts almost superhuman were made to procure the means 
of defence. Corn was collected from every quarter, arms 
were manufactured day and night, the women cut off their^ 
hair to furnish material for bowstrings, and the whole city 
became one vast workshop. 

Siege of Carthage (b. c. 149-146). — Such efforts were 
not without result. For three years the Carthaginians stood 
at bay behind their walls ; and Hasdrubal, who commanded 
their forces in the field, held his own successfully against the 
Roman consul. But the siege was doggedly maintained; 
and, in the course of it, the Roman army more than once owed 
its safety to the skill and bravery of a young military trib- 
une, Scipio iEmilianus, son of ^Emilius Paulus, who had 
been adopted by the son of the great Africanus. In 147, 
Scipio visited Rome to offer himself a candidate for the 
edileship ; but so great was his reputation, that, though he 
was only 37 years old, the people elected him consul, and 
assigned him Africa for his province. 

Destruction of Carthage (b. c. 146). — Scipio's first 
step was to restore discipline to the army. He next 
stormed Megara, a suburb of Carthage ; and then proceeded 
so to close the entrance of the harbor, as to cut off the city 



B. C. 146. DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE. 439 

from all supplies by sea. But, while he was engaged in this 
laborious task, the besieged built fifty new ships in their inner 
port, and cut another channel communicating with the ocean. 
This fleet, however, was destroyed after a three days' fight, 
and at last Scipio was ready for a final assault. In this su- 
preme encounter, the Carthaginians struggled with the cour- 
age of despair. During six whole days they fought from 
Street to street, from house to house, until the last 50,000 
defenders, who had been driven into the Acropolis of Byrsa, * 
accepted quarter, and were conducted under a strong guard 
into the country. The city was sacked, then levelled to the 
ground. A portion of its dominions was assigned to Utica. 
The remainder was formed into a Roman province, under 
.the name of Africa. 

Later History of Carthage. — Thus fell Carthage, 
once the seat of commerce, the repository of wealth, and the 
chief emporium of the ancient world. About 120 years 
later, it was rebuilt by Augustus, and rose again, under the suc- 
ceeding emperors of Rome, to be the capital of Africa. It 
was finally destroyed by the Arabs in a. d. 647. 

Recent Excavations at Carthage. — From the de- 
struction of Carthage by the Arabs, its ruins were left un- 
disturbed till A. D. 1837, when excavations were begun by a 
groupf of scholars and distinguished amateurs. Resumed in 
i860 and again in 1874, the work of discovery has been 
lately (1884) taken in hand by the French government. The 
little that has thus far been done, shows that Punic Carthage 
has .not entirely perished. Its remains lie buried under 
some 20 feet of ruins belonging to the Arab, the Byzantine, 
and the Roman period. 

The excavations have brought to light a vast number of 
antique coins, mosaics, inscriptions, and fragments of sculp- 
ture, which, however, give us no exalted idea of Punic art. 
The few discovered specimens of architecture, are also of a 
very inferior style, remarkable for solidity rather than for 
beauty. Of the cisterns connected with every Punic house, 

* Anpian tells us that this part of the town was the most thickly 
peopled, and contained many houses six stories high. 

f The association formed (a. d. 1837) for the purpose of exca- 
vating ancient sites in Northern Africa, consisted of Dureau de la 
Malle, Raoul-Rochette, Count Portales, Sir Grenville Temple, and 
Falbe — an officer in the Danish navy. But the capital originally 
contributed for the enterprise, soon gave out, and no mention is 
made of the society after 1839. 



440 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVIII. 



which were built in a peculiar and very practical style, some, 
respected by the successive invaders, might still be used, if 
the site of Carthage were inhabited. 

The language and writing of the inscriptions are in the 
ancient Punic, that is, a variety of Phoenician closely con- 
nected with the Hebrew. Indeed, it is chiefly through the 
Hebrew that these inscriptions have been deciphered. In a 
single spot, more than 500 slabs have been lately brought to 
light. From the nature and similarity of their inscriptions* 
and figures, they are thought to have belonged to a temple 
of the goddess Tanit. Most of them are surmounted by a 
small pediment, whereon are found a triangle crowned by a 
circle and various representations, such as, an open hand, a 
palm-tree, the moon, a lotus-flower, a dolphin, a ram, an 
anchor, a caduceus, and others. The lower part of the slabs 
is not polished — a circumstance which suggests that they 
were planted, tomb-like, in the court-yard or the outer pre- 
cincts of the temple. 

A chapel built by king Louis Philippe of France, and a 
more recently-erected convent now crowning the hill of 
Byrsa, are about to receive additions, alike extensive and 
monumental, and may, perhaps, form the nucleus of a 
modern Carthage. Pope Leo xiii has lately revived the 
archiepiscopal see of St. Cyprian. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 



Spanish Wars (b. c, 153-133). — First Servile War (b. c. 134-132). 
The Province of Asia (b. c. 129). 

War with the Celtiberians (b. c. 153-152). — In 
B. c. 153, the inhabitants of the Celtiberian town of Segeda, 
% 

* These inscriptions are very monotonous. The following trans- 
lation of one of them may give an idea of the whole series : " To 
our Lady Tanit and to our Lord Baal-Ammon, vow made by Bod- 
melcarth, son of Hannibal, son of Bodmelcarth, in acknowledg- 
ment of having listened to his prayers ! May they bless him !" 



B. C. 153-133. SPANISH WARS, 44 J 

contrary to the treaty made with S. Gracchus (b. c. 179), 
began to rebuild their walls. A fresh war with Rome was 
the consequence. The Celtiberians espousing the cause of 
their countrymen, the Romans at first met with serious re- 
sistance. But, before long, all opposition was overcome and 
peace restored. 

Massacre of the Lusitanians (b. c. 150). — The Ro- 
man commanders now turned their arms against certain 
Spanish tribes yet unsubdued — the Vaccsei, Cantabri, and 
Lusitanians. The pretor Ser. Sulpicius Galba, having ven- 
tured into the heart of Lusitania, was defeated with great 
loss, and barely escaped with a few horsemen. Eager to 
wash away this stain, he again (b. c. 150) invaded the coun- 
try from the south, while Lucullus attacked it from the north. 
Thus hemmed in between two armies, the Lusitanians sent 
ambassadors to offer submission. Galba received them with 
apparent kindness, promising to assign them fertile lands, if 
they would meet him in three bodies with their wives and 
children, in three different places which he indicated. Mul- 
titudes of unsuspecting people came as directed, but were 
butchered — men, women, children — without distinction. For 
this outrage, Galba was impeached at Rome. But he was 
eloquent and wealthy ; and the liberal use of money, to- 
gether with the compassion excited by his weeping children, 
obtained his acquittal. 

Viriathus (b. c. 150-140). — Among those who escaped 
from the massacre was Viriathus, a man of low birth, but of 
lofty sentiments, great energy of soul, and uncommon natu- 
ral abilities. Placing himself at the head of his surviving 
countrymen, who were now quite unwilling to submit to the 
rule of a people equally treacherous and cruel, by open force 
or stratagem^he opposed a determined resistance; and, sur- 
prising (b. c. 141) the proconsul Fabius Servilianus in a nar- 
row pass where escape was impossible, generously suffered 
the Romans to depart, uninjured, on condition that the Lus- 
itanians should retain their lands and be acknowledged as 
allies of Rome. The senate ratified the treaty. But the 
consul Csepio soon found a pretext for renewing the war; 
and, when Viriathus sent him envoys to propose fresh terms 
of peace, he persuaded them, by promise of large rewards, 
to murder their chieftain. With the death of Viriathus, the 
resistance of the Lusitanians virtually ended. Their country 
was finally brought to subjection in b. c. 138. 



442 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XVIII. 



The Numantine War (b. c. 144-133).— The war with 
Viriathus was not yet at an end, when the Romans found 
themselves engaged in fresh hostilities with the Ceitiberians. 
The struggle this time centered around Numantia, the capi- 
tal of the Arevaci, the most powerful of the Celtiberian 
tribes. A favorable beginning was followed by disaster to 
the Roman arms, and the consul C. Hostilius Mancinus, on 
one occasion, escaped destruction with his whole army only 
by recognizing Celtiberian independence. But this treaty 
was shamefully repudiated by the senate; and the war being 
renewed, the Romans met with fresh disasters. Thereupon, 
turning to Scipio Africanus, they sent him to Spain (b. c. 

134). 
Revival of Discipline. — Here, as in Africa, the efforts 

of the new commander were first directed to the restoration 

of discipline. He removed from the camp whatever savored 

of effeminacy or mere comfort, compelling the soldiers to 

make long marches, each man carrying his baggage, arms, 

and provisions for 1 5 or 20 days. He required them to dig 

trenches, to build walls, and erect palisades, for the mere 

purpose of inuring them to labor. "Let them be covered 

with mud," he would say, " since they dare not be covered 

with the blood of the enemy." 

Destruction of Numantia. — With 6000 men thus 
rendered efficient, Scipio proceeded to lay siege to Numan- 
tia. He surrounded it with a line of intrenchments com- 
posed of a ditch and wall flanked with towers. Want was 
soon felt in the beleaguered city. But it was not till ^ its 
inhabitants had suffered the most dreadful famine, eating 
even the bodies of the dead, that the few survivors surren- 
dered. Fifty of these were selected to grace the victor's 
triumph; the rest were sold as slaves, and the town was 
razed to the ground. Numantia never again rose from its 
ruins; but its gallant defence against overwhelming odds, 
deserves to be commemorated to the end of time. 

Servile War in Sicily (134-132). — Owing to the 
protracted wars of which Sicily was the theatre, there had 
been here, as in Italy, a great decrease of the free population, 
with a proportionate increase in the number of slaves. Of 
these the recent conquests of the republic furnished an inex- 
haustible supply ; and in consequence they were cheap, and 
the masters, not caring for their lives, treated them with 
great barbarity. It was an aggravation of their misery, that 



B. C. I29. PROVINCE OF ASIA. 443 

most of them were once freemen ; and that, in intelligence 
and education, many were equal or superior to their masters. 
Of this last class Sicily had a great number, a large proportion 
of the slaves with which the island swarmed being Greeks 
or Syrians. Here it was that the first servile war broke 
out. 

Demophilus, a wealthy land-owner of Enna, by his cruelty 
drove his slaves to despair. Led by a Syrian named Eunus, 
who pretended to the gift of prophecy and promised them 
the victory, they assembled to the number of 400 men, 
attacked Enna, and, being joined by other slaves within the 
town, quickly made themselves masters of the place. Eunus, 
while yet a slave, had prophesied that he would become 
king, and he now assumed the royal diadem. The Syrians 
thereupon rallied round him ; and, the revolt becoming 
general, the island was delivered over to the murderous fury 
of men maddened by oppression, cruelty, and insult. For 
two years, the rebels defied both the pretors and the con- 
suls of the republic; and it was not till B. c. 132 that the 
war was brought to a close by the taking of Taurometum 
and Enna, the two strongholds of the insurgents. 

Formation of the Province oe Asia (b. c. 129). — 
In b. C. 133 died Attalus ill Philometor, king of Pergamus. 
This monarch, leaving no children, bequeathed his king- 
dom and treasures to the Roman people. The senate 
accepted the inheritance, but found it necessary to use force 
to make good the right thus acquired. For Aristonicus, a 
natural son of Eumenes 11, laid claim to the crown, and 
opposed the Roman occupation. He gained at first some 
advantages over the Romans. But the latter finally pre- 
vailed ; and, in B. c. 1 29, the kingdom of Pergamus was 
formed into the province of Asia. The foreign dominions 
of Rome now comprised the following provinces: Sicily, 
Sardinia and Corsica, the two Spains, Gallia Cisalpina, Mac- 
edonia, Illyricum, Achaia, Africa, and Asia. 

Pergamus, the late capital of Attalus, first acquired prom- 
inence when Lysimachus, one of the generals of Alexan- 
der, chose it as the repository of his treasures ; and under 
the Roman rule it continued to flourish, and became the 
focus of all the great military and commercial routes of Asia 
Minor. The library collected at Pergamus by its successive 
kings, was inferior only to that of Alexandria. This city 
was also the seat of a famous grammar-school, and it event- 



444 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIX. 



ually gave its name to parchment.* Under the Byzantine 
emperors, Pergamus lost much of its importance ; but the 
place (now BergamaJi) is still noted for the splendor and 
magnificence of its ruins, which embrace temples, palaces, 
aqueducts, gymnasia, amphitheatres, and city walls. 



CHAPTER XIX. 



Government of the Provinces. — Moral Decadence. — The 
New Nobility.— Pauperism. 

Extent of the Roman Dominion.— The power of 
Rome was now paramount in the four great peninsulas which 
project into the Mediterranean, and her authority was recog- 
nized in all the principal islands and at almost every point 
of the coast-line. Italy and Spain, Greece and Macedo- 
nia, Asia Minor, and the islands of the Tyrrhenian, the Ionian, 
and the ^Egean Sea, were hers. Her province of Africa com- 
prised the old dominion of Carthage, on either side of which 
the kingdoms of Egypt and Numidia merely enjoyed a nom- 
inal independence. In the south of Gaul, Massilia and 
Narbo, now the allies of the senate, were shortly to be used 
as the foundation of a Roman province of Gaul beyond the 
Alps. 

Administration of the Provinces — Revenues. — 
The organization of the provinces was not conducted on a 
uniform plan. Various communities were treated with vary- 
ing degrees of indulgence. Some retained their old local 
government. Some received the Latin or the Italian fran- 
chise. Some continued in the enjoyment of their lands, or 
forfeited but a small part of their territory to the domain of 
the republic. But everywhere tolls and customs were levied ; 

* When Ptolemy, king of Egypt, prohibited the exportation of 
papyrus, there followed at once a greater demand for parchment. 
That of Pergamus, Pergame?ia charta, soon became famous for 
its abundance and quality. Hence the name Pergamena, cor- 
rupted into the English parchment, as the^ generic appellation for 
all writing materials prepared from the skins of animals. Till the 
invention of paper from rags, parchment remained the chief wri- 
ting material, which circumstance, owing to the great»durability of 
parchment, was most fortunate for literature. 



GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCES. 



445 



a tax * was laid on the occupiers of the public pastures — so 
much for each beast — and a tenth of corn with a fifth of other 
produce was paid by those who tilled the public lands. These 
revenues were usually farmed by the Roman knights, who 
made large fortunes from the transaction. Public opinion at 
home was such as rather to stimulate, than to check, their 
extortions. For it became a settled maxim of Roman policy, 
that every penny extracted from the provincial for the 
enrichment of his ruler, was so much transferred of the sinews 
of war to the state from its enemies. Indeed the principle 
underiying the Roman administration of the provinces was, 
that the native races were to be regarded and treated as con- 
quered subjects. 

Proconsuls and Propretors. — The government of 
the provinces was in fact a military occupation. Year by 
year at first, in later times every third year, a proconsul or a 
propretor, supported by one or more legions and numerous 
auxiliary battalions, arrived from Rome to assume the com- 
mand ; and, on all points, his word was law. Himself, his 
retinue, his troops, were maintained and furnished with 
houses and establishments out of the local revenues. He 
was supposed to serve the state gratuitously ; but was practi- 
cally left to remunerate himself by any indirect means of ex- 
tortion. As supreme authority, both civil and military, was 
vested in him, his rule was too often one of tyranny and 
spoliation. The only check upon his rapacity and violence, 
was the fear of being impeached before the senate f at the end 
of his term. But, generally, the governor thus accused 

* Called scriptura, because each grazier's name was written down 
as a debtor to the state for so much, according to the number of 
head of cattle he fed on the public pastures. The taxes from the 
tilled lands went under the generic appellation of decumcz, tenth 
part, or tithes, though that amount was paid on corn alone, whilst 
a fifth was required on other produce. — The wealth arising from 
these sources enabled the senate, on the conquest of Macedonia, 
to remit the land-tax from the entire soil of Italy. 

t The knights, who were debarred from these guilty gratifica- 
tions, kept a watch on the provincial rulers, and at first invoked 
the laws against them. Murder, bribery, peculation, corruption 
on the seat of justice, were crimes of which the comitia of the 
tribes took cognizance, and that assembly was not indisposed to 
judge severely the misdeeds of wealthy nobles. The senate, how- 
ever, instituted a new tribunal, composed solely of members of 
their own order, to judge the class of offences here referred to, 
and thus foHed the attack of the knights, 

88 



446 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XIX. 

could screen himself by bribing his judges, who, bred in the 
the same school of corruption, were guilty themselves of like 
crimes, and naturally anxious to aid one of their order. In 
fact, the time came when Roman governors boasted that 
three years of office sufficed to make their own fortunes, to 
reward their followers, and to purchase the suffrages of their 
judges. 

Internal Corruption at Rome. — Up to the time of 
the Syrian war, Roman patriotism, disinterestedness, and for- 
titude, had given little sign of decay. Yet, some of the high 
moral principles, so long the characteristics of Rome, were 
already trembling to their fall. Religious doubt first, then 
disbelief in the ancient sacred usages of the Italian and 
Etruscan nations, slowly crept in among the higher classes. 
Foreign superstitions, and these not of the purest cast, such 
as the sensual* worship of the Good Goddess (the Phrygian 
Cybele) and the spectacle of the Jlora/ia, were introduced, and 
became national schools of impurity. But lately, too, the 
law of divorce — the need of which was not felt for 500 years 
— had been passed (b. c. 231). 

To accelerate moral depravity, the amazing successes of 
the Romans in the east brought them into immediate contact 
with Asiatic luxury. From that moment, the downward 
tendency became irresistible. Avarice, ambition, licentious- 
ness, took the place of the old national virtues. Asia van- 
quished by Roman arms, in turn vanquished f its victors, 
and subjected them to its vices. 

Daily Life of a Noble Roman. — Glancing at the man- 
ners and customs of the Romans of high rank at this period, 
we may observe how the life of the city becomes distinguished 
from that of the country, and that of the Campanian baths 

* In b. c. 186, it was discovered that the worship of Bacchus had 
been introduced from Southern Italy into Rome and other towns; 
and that secret s- cieties were formed, which, under the cloak of 
this worship, indulged in abominable practices. The most guilty- 
members were put to death, and stringent laws enacted to prevent 
the recurrence of the evil. 

t f Sasvior armis 
™ Luxuria incubuit, victumque ulciscitur orbem. — Juven. 

Some of the Roman nobles acquired a love for Greek literature 
and art, but the great mass o1" the nation imitated only the vices of 
the Orientals. Cooks, who had formerly been the cheapest kind of 
slaves at Rome, now became the most valuable. A love of luxury 
and a general depravity spread through all classes of society. 



MORAL DECADENCE. 



447 



from both. Of the first, the service of the state and the 
performance of public duties were the dominant idea. In 
the morning, the formal reception of freedmen, and the giving 
of legal opinions to clients ; toward noon, public business in 
the forum or the senate-house ; then, preparation for public 
speaking with hired rhetoricians, followed by retirement for 
a short mid-day sleep. The afternoon was devoted to active 
exercises in the Campus Martius, such as swimming, wrest- 
ling, and fencing. Supper followed, diversified with singing 
and buffoonery ; and so to bed at sundown. In the country, 
the Roman was up with the sun to superintend his farm. 
Part of his day was devoted to hunting, fishing, and other 
field-sports, and the remainder to study, or writing, or sleep. 
At the baths, there was a complete holiday. Barefoot, and 
lightly clad in a Grecian dressing-gown, the Roman lounged 
through the day in idle gossip, in frequent bathing, in listen- 
ing to the light songs and music of foreign artists. — The 
Roman was generally proud of his stern routine of self- 
imposed duty, and ashamed of these indolent relaxations ; 
but the siren Sloth was gradually gaining his ear, and step 
by step the love of business gave way to the love of luxury 
and ease. 

The Knights. — The equestrian centuries, as before 
explained, included all the richest citizens; and, as the 
higher magistrates not only received no salary, but in their 
edileship had to bear the heavy expense of providing public 
amusement, none but rich men could aspire to curule magis- 
tracies, and accordingly none below the rank of knight were 
elected. 

The Nobles. — Anyone who first obtained a curule mag- 
istracy, became the founder of the nobility of his family. 
Such a person was himself neither a nobilis nor an ignobilis, 
but a novus homo, a new man. His posterity ranked among 
the nobles (no biles) ; and he and they were eligible to fill 
vacancies in the senate. Thus a new nobility grew at Rome, 
resting on wealth, and composed alike of plebeian and 
patrician families. The nobiles were outwardly distinguished 
from the ignobiles by the jus imaginum (right of images), 
that is, the privilege of keeping, in the atrhcm (reception- 
hall) of the house, figures of wax representing the ancestors 
who had held any of the curule magistracies ; these figures 
were carried in the funeral procession of a member of the 
family. 



448 ANCIENT ROME. Cmapt. XI. 

The Senators. — The number of senators, at this time, 
was still limited to 300.* A high standard of property was 
enforced, as a necessary qualification to enter, or remain in 
the senate; and every five years the censors revised the 
list, striking off the poor and unworthy, and selecting the 
most distinguished men to fill their places. Those who had 
attained to the rank of senators made strenuous exertions to 
maintain their own position, and to keep out from it those 
who were still only of knightly rank. The latter were no 
less eager to advance themselves. Hence the political con- 
flict of the senate and the knights, which, in the later years 
of the republic, recalled the early struggle between patricians 
and plebeians. Even at the time we have reached, the 
wealthy senators, by combining together to keep in their own 
families the public offices, already formed a powerful aristoc- 
racy which strove hard to retain the exclusive possession of 
the government. 

As the dominions of the republic grew larger, the privileges 
and power of the senate increased in proportion. For, in 
foreign affairs, with the exception of declaring war and 
making peace, which needed the sanction of the centuries, 
the authority of the senate was absolute. The senate 
assigned the provinces into which the consuls and pretors 
were to be sent ; prolonged the command of a general, or 
superseded him ; and carried on all negotiations with for- 
eign states. From that august body ambassadors were 
invariably chosen. Thus it may be easily seen, that in 
addition to their rank and power, the senators enjoyed 
great opportunities of growing rich. As proconsuls and 
propretors, though receiving no salary, they amassed vast 
wealth in the form of gifts and bribes. Preferring to 
everything else the lucrative employment - of provincial 
governments, they now abandoned usury and commerce, 
with the farming of the taxes, to the knights, to whom they 
also allowed a large share in the occupation of the most 
fertile portions of the public lands. 

The Lower Classes of Citizens. — Whilst from the 
above causes, the knights, nobles, and senators, grew steadily 
richer, the lower classes became poorer and poorer. In the 

* When renovated by the dictator Sulla, it seems to have number- 
ed 400 ; thirty years later, the number of senators was not less 
than 500 ; it never exceeded 600. 



PAUPERISM. 



449 



earlier times, the citizen-soldier, after a few weeks' campaign, 
returned home to cultivate his land ; but this became impos- 
sible, when wars were carried on outside of Italy. Moreover 
the soldier, easily obtaining abundance of booty, found life 
in the camp more pleasant than the cultivation of the soil. 
Hence small peasant proprietors easily parted with their 
estates, which they sold to rich neighbors ; and they, or their 
posterity came soon to swell the ranks of the poor. Nor 
had they .the resource of hiring themselves as laborers, or of 
practising the mechanical arts, as these employments were 
now discharged by slaves. The poor at Rome were thus left 
almost without resources. Their votes in the popular assembly 
were nearly all they could turn into money, and it is there- 
fore not surprising that they were ready to sell them to the 
highest bidder. The first law against bribery (ambitus) was 
passed in B. C. 181, a sure proof of the growth of the prac- 
tice. 

The prevalence of poverty led, in time, to the distribution 
first of cheap, and then of gratuitous doles of corn, which 
was levied as a tribute in the provinces of Sicily and Africa, — 
a fatal expedient, which taught the poor to become state 
paupers, instead of depending upon their own exertion for a 
living. 

Political Assemblies. — Gradually the pratrician comi- 
tia of the curies was stripped of its privileges, till, long before 
the time we have reached, it retained nothing beyond the 
performance of certain religious riles. The whole political 
power henceforth resided in the comitia of the centuries and 
in that of the tribes, both of which were organized so as to 
give a paramount influence to wealth. This indeed had 
from the first been the avowed object of the comitia of the 
centuries. As that of the tribes acquired political impor- 
tance, the same result was attained by giving the censor the 
power to inscribe all the poorer citizens in the four urban * 
tribes, thus leaving the control of the 31 others to the rich. 

The Functions of these two assemblies were twofold — - 
elective and legislative. The centuries elected the consuls, 
the pretors, and the other curule magistrates. The tribes 
elected the inferior officers. Both assemblies could pass 
laws which were binding upon the whole people, but neither 
of them could initiate a law ; they could but give, or refuse, 

* Manumitted slaves could be enrolled in these 4 tribes alone. 



450 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XX. 

their sanction to measures already approved by the senate. 
If a consul, a pretor, or a dictator, had a new law to pro- 
pose, he laid it before the centuries ; if a tribune had a mea- 
sure to recommend, he laid it before the tribes. In both 
cases the approval of the senate must be first obtained ; and 
if, in some instances, we hear of honors being conferred by 
popular vote in defiance of the senate, these must be re- 
garded as acts of irregular encroachment. 

Senatus Consulta.— It has been stated that in foreign 
affairs the power of the senate was absolute. In many cases 
also relating to home affairs, such as religion, police, internal 
administration, its decrees {senatus consulted)* had the force 
of laws without being submitted to the popular assemblies. 
The only obstacle to their being carried into effect, was the 
tribunitian veto. The opposition of the tribunes, however, 
was in many cases easily combated by sowing dissension 
among them, and, failing this, by the creation of a dictator, 
or by investing consuls t with dictatorial powers. This last 
resource, at first intended to be used only against danger 
arising from a foreign enemy, was often perverted to serve 
the purposes of the senate in political strife. Against these 
arbitrary measures the people had one defensive weapon. 
No citizen could be sentenced to loss of life or of civil status, 
without an appeal to the people. If the consuls on any pre- 
text violated this right, they were themselves liable to be 
condemned by the comitia of the tribes. 



CHAPTER XX. 

The Agrarian Laws of the Gracchi. — b. c. 133-121. 

The Monopolizing of the Land. — We have seen that 
Rome, as she subdued her neighbors, usually confiscated 
part of the conquered territory, either to distribute it among 
her poorer citizens as freeholds, or to retain it as public 
domain to be leased at low rents. Of this public domain, the 

* So called, because the consul who brought a matter before the 
senate, was said senatum considered 

fThis was usually done by the well-known formula, Videant, or 
Dent operant — consides, tie quid respublica detrimenti capiat 



b. c. 133-121* THfi ekACCHi. 451 

Licinian law strictly provided, that no one might occupy 
more than 500 acres ; and that the leased lands might at any 
time be resumed by the state, to be granted in full possession 
to the indigents. But, in practice, what was assigned to 
poor colonists formed only an insignificant amount compared 
to the vast tracts retained by the state ; and the grants made 
to them were carved out of newly-conquered territory, so that 
the original leases were never disturbed. Then again, no 
restriction was really put to the number of acres the rich 
might occupy ; and since the conquest of Macedonia, no rent 
whatsoever had been required from the tenants of the state 
lands in Italy. The consequence of all this was, that immense* 
estates were formed, and that the distinction between the 
ownership of quiritary land and the mere occupation of the 
national land gradually disappeared. The public lands, which 
had for generations descended from father to son, and for 
which no tax was now paid, came to be regarded as freeholds. 
There was here a manifold evil which called for a remedy, if 
one could be found ; the more so, as the owners of those 
immense estates came to employ only slave labor for tillage, 
or rather, seeing that Italy could be supplied with corn from 
abroad, dispensed with tillage altogether, and exchanged it 
for pasture. 

Decrease of the Free Population. — Hence, through 
extensive tracts, which once swarmedf with population, but 
whose inhabitants had emigrated into the cities, or settled in 
the provinces, or perished in war, a few shepherds, mostly 
foreigners and slaves, were alone to be seen. To arrest the 
danger which menaced the state from the impoverishment 
and decay of her free population, and the alarming increase 
in the number of slaves, was the task which the Gracchi 
proposed to themselves. 

Youth of the Gracchi. — Tiberius and Caius Gracchus 
were the sons of Tib. Sempronius Gracchus and Cornelia, 
daughter of the elder Africanus. Bereaved of their father at 
an early age, they owed their excellent education to the 
care of their mother, herself a woman of culture and taste, 

*The free citizens of Rome were reckoned, a few years later, at 
406,000, while not more than 2000 could be designated as men of 
property. 

fPrevious to the second Punic war, Italy proper, exclusive of 
the Cisalpine, could arm 700,000 foot-soldiers and mount 70,000 
cavaliers — all free men, all trained warriors. 



452 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XX. 

who united in her person the severe virtue of the ancient 
Roman matron with the superior knowledge and refinement 
which began to prevail in the higher classes at Rome. She 
secured the most eminent Greek teachers for her sons ; and 
these so well corresponded to her cares, that in her maternal 
pride she called them her jewels and ornaments. Their 
birth, connections, and personal accomplishments, would 
have made it easy for them to rise to honor and influence 
through the ordinary course of public magistracies. But 
such was not the path which they chose. 

Tiberius Gracchus elected Tribune (b. c. 133). — 
Tiberius Gracchus was nine years older than his brother Caius. 
Possessed of less brilliant talents, he was more amiable, and 
won all hearts by the simplicity of his demeanor and his per- 
suasive eloquence. He no sooner reached manhood than he 
was elected augur; and in such esteem was he held, that at 
his installation, Appius Claudius, then chief of the senate, 
offered him his daughter in marriage. When Appius 
returned home, and informed his wife of their daughter's 
betrothal, " Why such haste," exclaimed the mother, " unless 
you secured her Tib. Gracchus?" — Sempronia, the only 
sister of Tiberius, was married to the younger Africanus. 

Tiberius served under his brother-in-law in Africa, and 
was the first to scale the walls of Carthage. As questor 
under Hostilius Mancinus, he saved the army (b. c. 137) by 
obtaining from the Numantines that treaty which the senate 
afterwards refused to ratify. In B. c. 133, he became tribune 
— an office which he had purposely sought, to carry out his 
plans for ameliorating the lot of the poor and repeopling 
Italy with free population. 

Agrarian Law. — Aware that his scheme was fraught 
with difficulties, Tiberius did not propose it till it had 
received the approbation of such men as his father-in-law 
Appius Claudius, P. Mucius Scaevola, the great jurist, who 
was then consul, and Crassus, the pontifex maximus. His 
bill, like the Licinian Law which had never been repealed, 
allowed to no one more than 500 jugera of the public land ; 
but permitted every possessor to receive in addition 250 for 
each of his sons. All the rest of the public domain was to 
be distributed among the poor citizens, by whom they could 
not be alienated, that they might not again be absorbed by 
the wealthy. The bill provided certain indemnifications for 
actual occupiers. It passed, despite the most violent opposi- 



B. C. I33-I2I. THE GRACCHI. Ar? 

tion ; and Tiberius himself, his brother Caius,* and his father- 
in-law Claudius; were nominated commissioners (triumviri) 
to carry it into effect. 

Death of Tiberius (b. c. 133). — The exasperation of 
the nobility was intense. They tried every means to blacken 
the character of Tiberius. They accused him of aspiring to 
royalty ; they excited tumults ; and the more violent among 
them, headed by Scipio Nasica, determined to put him down 
by violence. Whilst many of his partisans were engaged in 
their harvest, they attacked and slew him with 300 of his 
friends. But Nasica, to escape the popular vengeance, was 
forced to quit the city, and even to withdraw altogether from 
Italy. Nor did the nobles, despite their victory, venture to 
propose the repeal of the obnoxious law. A new commis- 
sioner was therefore chosen in the place of Tiberius, as also 
of Appius Claudius, who died soon after his son-in-law. 

Death of the Younger Africanus (b. c. 129). — The 
following year (b. c. 132), Scipio returned from the Numan- 
tine war. The people expected that, as brother-in-law of 
Tiberius, he would show sympathy with his reforms and 
sorrow for his fate. But, when the tribune C. Papirius Carbo,* 
who was now the leader of the popular party, asked him, in 
the assembly of the tribes, what he thought of the death of 
Tiberius, Scipio expressed his approval of the murder, and 
he moreover lent his powerful aid to thwart the application 
of the agrarian law. The Italians being alarmed at the pros- 
pect of losing some of their lands, he availed himself of the 
circumstance, to propose, in the senate (b. c. 129), that all 
disputes concerning the lands of the Italians should be trans- 
ferred from the commissioners to the consuls. This would 
have been equivalent to an abrogation of the law. Carbo, 
therefore, bitterly denounced him in the forum, as the enemy 
of the people. Scipio, in retorting, once more signified his 
approval of the death of Tiberius, whereupon the crowd 
snouted " Down with the tyrant ! " In the evening he went 
home, accompanied by all the senators and a crowd of 
Italians, but next morning was found dead in his chamber ; 
and, though it was the general belief that he was murdered, 
no inquiry was made into the cause of his death. 

Character of Scipio. — From his earliest years, Scipio 
had applied with ardor to literary pursuits. It was his good 

*Then a youth of twenty, serving under P. Scipio at Numantia. 



454 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XX. 

fortune to have Polybius as the director of his studies, and as 
a companion in almost all his campaigns. He profited by 
this constant intercourse with the Greek historian, as also 
with the philosopher Pansetius, to enlarge his knowledge of 
Grecian letters and philosophy. Nor did he neglect the 
literature of his own country. Terence was admitted to his 
intimacy, and Scipio is even said to have assisted him in the 
composition of his plays. His friendship with Lselius, whose 
tastes and pursuits were so congenial to his, has been 
immortalized by Cicero's celebrated treatise On Friendship, 
When allowed to leave the confinement of business and retire 
to the country, these two illustrious personages delighted in 
childish amusements. They would often gather shells and 
pebbles along the sea-shore, and skip them over the surface 
of the water, or indulge in some other such innocent diver- 
sions. 

Scipio was only 56 at the time of his death. Plutarch 
says, that in him Rome lost one incomparably the first, both in 
virtue and power, of the Romans of his time. Q. Metellus 
Macedonicus, though a political opponent, directing his sons 
to attend his funeral, " Go," said he, " you will never render 
this last duty to a greater man." Another senator of high 
rank, at his obsequies, publicly thanked the gods for having 
made Scipio a Roman, 'because the empire of the world 
must needs have been for that nation which produced so 
remarkable a personage.' 

Impeachment of Caius Gracchus. — The three com- 
missioners appointed to carry out the agrarian law, were now 
Caius Gracchus, Fulvius Flaccus, and Papirius Carbo. But 
so great were the difficulties of their task, so ingenious the 
obstacles thrown in their way, and so active the hostility of 
the senate, that no progress was made, and the law remained 
wholly inoperative. Flaccus, who became consul in B. C. 
125, was got rid of by being dispatched to the assistance of 
the Massilians, in Transalpine Gaul. Caius Gracchus had 
likewise been removed from Rome the previous year, by be- 
ing appointed questor to the proconsul of Sardinia. He had 
already been two years there, and the senate now attempted 
to keep him away another year, by sending fresh troops to 
the province, and commanding the proconsul to remain in 
the island. But Caius suddenly appeared in the city ; and, 
on being brought before the censors to account for his con- 
duct, ably defended himself, showing that he had been made 



B. C. I33-I2I. THE GRACCHI. 455 

to serve in the army 1 2 years, and to act as questor 2 years, 
while the law demanded only 10 years in the first case, and 
one in the second. 

His Popularity. — Elected tribune in b. c. 123, Caius 
sought not merely, like Tiberius, to improve the condition 
of the poor. He aimed besides at modiiying the constitution, 
so as to weaken the power of the senate. Having gained 
the people by his wonderful eloquence, by reenacting and 
extending the agrarian law of his brother, by procuring 
employment on the public works for the needy, by causing 
it to be decreed that corn should be sold to the poor at a 
price much below its market value,* and that the soldiers 
should be equipped atthe expense of the public, he boldly pro- 
ceeded in his further inovations. 

He Weakens the Senate. — Hitherto the senate had 
assigned the provinces to the consuls after their election, and 
thus had it in its power to grant wealthy governments to its 
supporters, and unprofitable ones to its opponents. It was 
now enacted that the two provinces to be governed by the 
consuls should be determined beforehand, and that these 
magistrates should, immediately after the election, settle 
between themselves, by lot or otherwise, which each should 
have. 

The Knights made Judges. — A still more serious inno- 
vation introduced by Caius, was that whereby the judicial 
power was transferred, partially at least, from the senators 
to the knights. Till now the provincial magistrates were 
tried for extortion,f before the pretorand a jury of senators. 
But, as these very senators had been, or hoped to be, pro- 
vincial magistrates, they were disposed to look leniently on 
the offences of which they themselves either had been, or 
might, become guilty. Just then, too, the provinces were 
exclaiming against the tyranny of the Roman officials, and 
soliciting redress. The tribune took advantage of the cry 
which resounded through the city, to install the knights in 
the tribunals (judicial). This measure, however, while effec- 
tive against the senate, contributed little to the promotion of 
justice. For the knights, who were the ftublicani, or tax- 
farmers of the republic, were as harsh and rapacious in their 
treatment of the provinces, as the senators themselves. 

Ordo Equestris. — Yet the new enactment proved 

* This was the first of the leges frumentarice. 
f De repetendis. 



456 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XX. 

advantageous in other respects. Henceforth the name of 
knights (equiies) was applied to all persons whose fortunes 
qualified them to act as judges, whether they served in the 
army or not. Thus the knights, apart from their military 
character, became a distinct order in the state (ordo eques- 
tris), whose interests were frequently opposed to those of 
the senate, and who therefore served as a check upon the 
latter. On many occasions, indeed, was the higher influence 
they acquired from their judicial functions, of much benefit to 
the state, either in preventing dissensions among differ- 
ent factions of the nobility, or in maintaining .the practical 
working of the law. 

Abortive Attempt to benefit the Latins and 
Allies. — Caius now brought in a bill conferring the citizen-, 
ship upon all the Latin colonies, and making the Italian, 
allies occupy the position which the Latins had previously 
held. Had this wise measure passed, many subsequent 
troubles might have been avoided. Unfortunately, the bill 
was almost equally distasteful to the people and to the nobles. 
The existing citizens, who saw that their importance would 
be diminished by an increase in their numbers, viewed the 
proposal with great repugnance ; nor could even _ the influ- 
ence and eloquence of Caius subdue their opposition. This 
failure marks the beginning of his downfall. 

Popularity of Caius Undermined. — The nobles who 
were bent on the destruction of Caius, now employed one of 
his colleagues, M. Livius Drusus, to undermine his influence 
with the commons. For every law proposed by Gracchus, 
Drusus brought forward some other measure still more pop- 
ular, giving at the same time full credit to the senate for 
the initiative in the matter. He took care, moreover, to ask 
no favor for himself, and left to others the management of 
business where money was expended. Gracchus, on the 
other hand, superintended everything in person. His dis- 
interestedness began to be suspected ; and while he was in 
Africa, founding a colony upon the ruins of Carthage, his 
opponents still further weakened his popularity. On his 
return, he endeavored to reorganize his party, but failed in 
being elected tribune, while two of his personal enemies, L. 
Opimius and Q. Fabius, were raised to the consulship. 

Murder of Caius (b. c. 121).— The new consuls no 
sooner entered upon office, than they resolved to drive mat- 
ters to extremities. Gracchus, being no longer protected by 



B. C. I33-121. THE GRACCHI. 457 

the inviolability of the tribuneship, wa3 purposely insulted 
by one of the lictors or servants of the consul Opimius. His 
partisans interposed in his defence, when the senate, hastily 
summoned, declared 'the state in danger,' andinvested'Opi- 
mius with dictatorial powers. During the night, Opimius 
took possession of the temple of Castor and Pollux, which 
overlooked the forum ; summoned a meeting of the senate 
for the following morning ; and ordered all the friends of his 
party to be present, each with two armed slaves. The con- 
sul's force was the stronger. Caius was driven from his 
refuge on the Aventine, the hill of the plebeians ; and, seeing 
no means of escape, ordered one of his attendants to slay 
him. His head was cut off, and carried to Opimius, who 
gave for it its weight in gold. With Caius, 3,000 of his par- 
tisans are said to have perished. 

His Character. — Caius Gracchus was undoubtedly the 
greatest orator of his time. His eloquence, which was of the 
vehement, impetuous kind, is represented to have been 
irresistible. Being of a warm and excitable temper, he was 
exposed, in addressing the people, to be carried away, to raise 
his voice to an undue pitch, or to move from end to end of 
the rostra too rapidly. To guard against these defects, he 
caused one of his servants, Licinius, to stand behind him du- 
ring his harangues, and warn him with the sound of a flute 
of over-excitement. Until this time, when speaking from the 
rostra, the orators always faced the comitium, where sat the 
patrician curies. Caius was the first to turn his back upon 
them, and address himself directly to the mass of the citizens 
— a practice which in the end prevailed. 

Honors paid to the Gracchi : Cornelia. — The 
nobles endeavored to brand Caius and his brother Tiberius, 
as seditious demagogues. But the people remained passion- 
ately devoted to their memory. At a latter period, statues 
were erected in their honor, and the spots on which they fell 
were declared holy ground. After the death of Caius, his 
mother Cornelia retired to Misenum. When visited by dis- 
tinguished men, she loved to recount the career of her sons, 
and narrated their death, as of heroes . of old, without tears 
or emotion. For herself, she ordered no epitaph but this, 

li Uic jacet Cornelia, Mater Gracchorum y Here lies Cor- 
nelia, the mother of the Gracchi." 

The Agrarian Laws rendered inoperative. — As 
after the fall of Tiberius Gracchus, so after the death of 

89 



458 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXI. 

Cams, the enactments respecting agrarian measures ceased 
to be executed. There were no further allotments of lands. 
With regard to those which had been made by the Gracchi, 
the claim forbidding the new possessors to alienate their por- 
tions had never been popular. It was now revoked. And, 
as the poorer citizens, since the establishment of a largess of 
provisions, cared little to quit the idleness of the city for the 
cultivation of distant farms, their allotments soon again fell 
into the hands of capitalists. Nor were the nobles slow in 
reasserting their supremacy. The censors were directed 
to expunge from the list of senators and knights all persons 
suspected of favoring a reform of the constitution. 



CHAPTER XXI. 



The Jugurthan War (b. c. 111-106). — Marius. — The Cimbri 

AND THE TEUTONES. 

Jugurtha, King of Numidia (b. c. 118). — Micipsa, the 
son of that Masinissa who had given such aid to the Romans 
during the second Punic war, £iied in B. c. 118. By his will 
his sons Hiempsal and Adherbal, and his nephew Jugurtha, 
each inherited a part of his kingdom. But Jugurtha, who 
far surpassed his cousins in spirit and ability, soon put them 
to death, and took to himself the whole succession. At the 
head of an auxiliary force of Numidians, he had assisted 
Scipio against Numantia. There, living among the Romans, 
he had learned how corrupt was the state of their govern- 
ment, and he thought it easy to purchase impunity from the 
senate. For a time, indeed, his gold did protect him. But, 
at last, more honorable counsels prevailed. One of the trib- 
unes having brought the matter before the people, the sen- 
ators were forced to yield, and war was declared against 
Jugurtha (b. C. hi). 

Jugurtha comes to Rome (b. c. ho). — In b. c. hi, the 
consul L. Calpurnius Bestia landed in Africa with a large 
army, and proceeded to invade Numidia. But, by means of 
bribes, Jugurtha obtained peace, on the sole condition of a 
pretended submission, together with the payment of a sum 
of money. At Rome, an outcry was immediatety raised 



B. C. III-I06. THE JUGURTHAN WAR. 459 

against this shameful transaction. The Numidian king was 
required to come in person, and disclose the details of his 
bribery. But, as he was about to speak, one of the tribunes, 
who had been gained over by the interested parties, inter- 
fered and stopped the proceedings. Meanwhile, Jugurtha 
pursued his secret intrigues. So fully did he trust to the in- 
fluence of gold, that he feared not to assassinate, even in Rome, 
a grandson of Masinissa, who claimed the Numidian throne. 
Such a crime perpetrated under the very eyes of the senate, 
could not be overlooked. Jugurtha was ordered to quit 
Italy without delay. On leaving Rome, he is said to have 
uttered the memorable words, "A city for sale, and des- 
tined soon to perish, if it can find a purchaser I"* 

Disaster to Roman Arms (b. c. iio). — Jugurtha 
reached his kingdom in safety, but was followed thither by a 
Roman army under the consul Sp. Postumius Albinus and 
his brother Aulus. The incapacity of these commanders 
proved as favorable to Jugurtha, as had been the corruption 
of their predecessors. Aulus penetrated into the heart of 
Numidia in the hope of securing the royal treasures, but suf- 
fered himself to be surprised in his camp. Great part of his 
army was cut to pieces ; and the rest only escaped a similar 
fate by the ignominy of passing under the yoke. The 
disgrace, however, roused the Roman indignation. The 
treaty concluded by Aulus was annulled ; fresh troops were 
raised, and one of the consuls for the new year (b. c. 109), 
Q. Caecilius Metellus, hastened to Numidia, in order to 
repair the honor of Rome. But this did not satisfy the peo- 
ple. The trial of those who had been bribed by Jugurtha, 
was resumed, and many persons of the highest rank were con- 
demned, among whom Bestia, Albinus, and Opimius — the 
same that acted with such ferocity towards Caius Gracchus 
and his party. 

Metellus Defeats Jugurtha (b. c. 109). — The con- 
sul Metellus was an able general and an honest man. When 
Jugurtha found this out, despairing of success, he made over- 
tures for submission. These Metellus apparently entertained, 
though he sought only to gain the king's adherents, and 
through them obtain possession of his person ; and he con- 
tinued, all the while, to advance into the heart of the country. 
Seeing himself deceived, Jugurtha made a sudden attack on 

*Urbem venalem et mature perituram, si emptorem invenerit!— 
Sallust* 



460 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXI. 

Metellus, but suffered a total defeat. Thenceforward, he 
avoided a pitched battle, contenting himself with perpetually 
hovering on the flanks of the invaders, and thereby causing 
them great suffering. In vain did Metellus try to bring his 
adversary to bay by attacking the strong fortress of Zama. 
The defence of this place was successfully maintained, and 
the Romans raised the siege to go into winter-quarters. 

Rise of Caius Marius. — Much of the success of Metel- 
lus against Jugurtha was due to his lieutenant, a rude soldier 
of the old Roman school, who had passed through every 
stage of the service, and was shortly to be raised to the 
supreme command. During the Numantine war, Caius 
Marius learned warfare under Scipio, and by his ready submis- 
sion to discipline, as well as by his prowess, attracted the 
notice of that commander. Though low-born and of uncouth 
manners, he was by Africanus admitted to his table ; and, on a 
certain occasion, when one of the guests asked Scipio where, 
after his death, the Romans would find another such gen- 
eral, he is said to have answered, laying his hand on the 
shoulder of Marius, " Perhaps here." At first, however, his 
road to honors was a difficult one. He was not raised to the 
tribuneship of the plebs, till he had attained the mature age 
of 38. He lost his election to the edileship, and with diffi- 
culty obtained the pretorship. But his marriage with Julia, 
an aunt of the future ruler of Rome, by connecting him 
with the noble family of the Caesars, gave him a social status 
which made his subsequent rise easier. His military abili- 
ties recommended him to the consul Metellus, who was 
anxious to restore discipline in the army, and to retrieve the 
glory of the Roman name in the war against Jugurtha ; and 
so Marius accompanied him, as chief lieutenant, to Numidia. 
The readiness with which he shared the toils of the troops, 
eating of the same food and working with them at the 
trenches, made him the idol of the soldiers ; and, through 
their letters to friends at Rome, his praises were in every 
mouth. Thus the impression gradually became gen- 
eral among the people, of his peculiar fitness to close the 
contest with Jugurtha. Aware of these favorable disposi- 
tions, Marius now aspired to the consulship. 

Marius is Elected Consul (b. c. 108). — When Ma- 
rius asked his general's leave to go and sue for the consul- 
ship, the high-born Metellus scornfully bade him stay where 
he was. " You need not be in such haste," said he ; " it will 



B. C. III-IO6. THE JUGURTHAN WAR. 46 1 

be time enough for you to seek the office along with my 
son." His son, then serving in the army, was but 20, and 
could not therefore apply for the office for 20 years to come. 
The insult rankled in the breast of Marius, and doubtless 
influenced his subsequent treatment of the nobility. Metel- 
lus at last allowed him to depart, but only twelve days before 
the election. With a favorable wind, he arrived in time ; 
and not only obtained the consulship, but was appointed by 
the people to the province of Numidia, in defiance of the 
senate, who proposed to maintain Metellus there as procon- 
sul. 

He Enlists the Proletarians. — Marius openly exulted 
in his success, and lost no opportunity of flaunting his origin 
in the face of the defeated nobles. Before returning to 
Africa, he effected an important revolution in the institutions 
of Rome. Instead of choosing soldiers only from the five 
classes according to ancient custom, he enrolled into his 
legions any persons who chose to offer themselves for the 
service, however poor and mean. Eager to profit by the 
opportunity, the proletarians of the city, in hopes of plunder, 
and with the example of their low-born leader before them, 
flocked to his standard, thus creating for him an army 
devoted rather to his personal ambition than to the welfare 
of the republic. 

Marius ends the Jugurthan War (b. c. 107-106).— ? 
Marius, after resuming operations, easily wrested from the 
hands of Jugurtha most of his strongholds. But the desert 
afforded the Numidian a more secure asylum. There he 
long continued to defy the attacks of the Romans ; thence, 
too, would he often unexpectedly sally, fall upon the inva- 
ders, and withdraw as stealthily into his hiding-places. Nor 
was the war finally brought to a close, till Jugurtha was be- 
trayed by Bocchus, the king of Mauritania. A cruel ven- 
geance was wreaked upon the captive monarch. He was 
reserved to grace the conqueror's triumph, and ultimately 
cast into the Mamertine prison, where for six days he 
wrestled in the agonies of mortal cold and hunger. 

Settlement of Africa. — As his reward for betraying 
Jugurtha, Bocchus received the western portion of Numidia. 
The eastern part was annexed to the province of Africa, and 
the remainder continued in nominal independence, being 
divided between two princes of the house of Masinissa. — A 
few years later, Ptolema^us Apion, the last of the Greek kings 



462 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXt. 

of Cyrenaica, bequeathed his kingdom to the Romans. ^ A 
shadow of independence was allowed to the five principal 
cities in the country ; but Leptis was occupied by a Roman 
garrison. 

Early Career of Sulla.— To L. Cornelius Sulla, the 
questor of Marius, was chiefly due the capture of Jugurtha. 
Descended of a patrician family, Sulla enjoyed the advan- 
tages of a good education, and early imbibed that love of 
literature and art for which he was distinguished throughout 
life ; but, at the same time, he became conspicuous for licen- 
tiousness and debauchery. His love of pleasure, however, 
did not absorb all his time, nor enfeeble his mind. In clear 
judgment, keen discrimination of character, and firm will, 
few Romans were Sulla's equals. Though trained by no 
previous experience, when sent as questor to Marius, he 
discharged his duties to the full satisfaction of his com- 
mander, and was equally successful in winning the affections 
of the soldiers. He always addressed them with kindness, 
seized every opportunity of obliging them, and was as ready 
to join in all the jests, as to share in all the labors, of the 
camp. 

Victories of the Cimbri (b. c. i 13-105). — The Cim- 
bri were first heard of, in B. c. 11 3. They were then in 
Noricum. Hence they descended into Illyricum, and marched 
westward into Helvetia, where they were joined by the 
Tigurini and Ambrones. They next swept over Gaul, which 
they plundered and ravaged in every direction. Rome had 
lately taken 'from the Allobroges the southern corner of 
Transalpine Gaul, since known as the provincia (modern 
Provence). To defend this recent acquisition against the 
barbarians, now became her chief care. Thither, accordingly, 
three consular armies were sent in turn, and successively 
beaten. A Silanus was defeated, a Cassius slain, and a 
Scaurus made prisoner. But the most dreadful loss was still 
to come. In B. c. 105, the camps of Manlius and Csepio, who 
commanded two consular armies, were forced on the same 
day, and 80,000 men slaughtered. Since the defeat of Cannae 
or the Allia, no such catastrophe had overwhelmed the 
republic. Happily for Italy, the victors, instead of at once 
invading it, separated into detached columns, and resumed 
their depredations through the neighboring countries. The 
mass of the Cimbri crossed over into Spain, which they 
ravaged for the next two or three years. 



fe. C. II3-IOL fHE ClMBfct AND THE TEUTONES. 463 

Restoration of Discipline by Marius. — The capture 
of Jugurtha occurred early in B. c. 106. Marius remained 
nearly two years longer in Africa, to regulate the affairs of 
Numidia. But the repeated disasters of the Romans in Gaul 
made them long for his return, and the consulship was 
thrust upon him in his absence. He entered Rome in 
triumph on the 1st of January, 104, which was also the first 
day of his second consulship, and soon set out for the Trans- 
alpine. He employed the breathing-time afforded by the 
scattering of the barbarians, in training the new levies, and 
accustoming them to hardships. Notwithstanding the severity 
with which he punished the least breach of discipline, he was 
a favorite with the soldiers, who learned implicitly to trust 
their general, and appreciated the strict impartiality with 
which he visited the offences of the officers, as well as of 
the privates. No less was the confidence of the people at 
Rome in their champion, and so he was elected consul a 
third and a fourth time. 

Battle of Aqu^e Sexti^e (b. c. 102). — At last, in b. c. 102, 
the barbarians began to move. The Cimbri and Helvetii 
proposed to make the circuit of the Alps, and pour into Italy 
by the valley of Trent. The Teutones * and Ambrones were 
to follow the ordinary road, along the sea coast of Liguria. 
A place of meeting was appointed on the banks of the Po. 
To arrest their progress, the consul Lutatius Catulus went 
with an army to await the Cimbri in the Cisalpine, while 
Marius kept his post in the Transalpine province. As the 
Romans were easily terrified by the huge stature and hideous 
figures of the barbarians, Marius thought it prudent first to 
act on the defensive. Regardless alike of the taunts of the 
invaders and of the impatience displayed by his troops, he 
kept his men intrenched within a fortified camp, contenting 
himself with repelling the assaults of the barbarians, till at 
last, weary of this state of things, they pressed on to Italy. 
For six days he allowed their warriors with their wives and 
children, their chariots and baggage, to defile before his 
camp, while they asked his soldiers derisively ' what message 
they must carry to their families.' At last, he followed them ; 
and in a favorable position, 1 2 miles east of Aquaa Sextiae 

* Who the Teutones and the Cimbri were, or whence they came, 
has not yet been ascertained. Their fighting men are said to have 
amounted to 300,000, besides a much larger number of women and 
children. 



464 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXI. 

(Aix), offered them battle. First the Ambrones, and two 
days later the Teutones, furiously assaulted the Roman lines, 
but were repulsed with immense slaughter. An ambush of 
3000 men, placed by Marius in the rear, fell upon the retreat- 
ing forces of the barbarians, and completed their rout. The 
multitude of slain unburied on the spot, gave it the frightful 
appellation of the Putrid Plain- a name still recalled by that 
of PourriereSy the village which now marks the scene of that 
fearful carnage. Immediately after the battle, as Marius was 
in the act of setting fire to the vast heap of broken arms which 
was intended as an offering to the gods, horsemen rode up to 
him, and greeted him with the news of his being elected con- 
sul for the fifth time. 

Battle of Vercell^e (b. c. ioi). — The Cimbri, in the 
meantime, had made their way across the Alps by the Bren- 
ner pass, the only one which was practicable for their wagons. 
The colleague of Marius, Q. Lutatius Catulus, at first awaited 
them in a strong position on the Athesis {Adige). But, in 
consequence of the terror of his soldiers at the approach of 
the barbarians, he retreated beyond the Po, leaving the 
whole Transpadane territory at the mercy of the invaders. 
These now proceeded westward in search of the Teutones, 
of whose destruction they had not yet heard. But, before 
long, they were confronted, near Vercellae, by the united 
armies of Catulus and of Marius, the latter having hurried 
with his victorious legions to the scene of danger. His 
presence had revived the courage of the troops of Catulus, 
and the Romans offered battle to the invaders. But as 
these were still waiting for their allies, they declined the 
engagement, and sent to ask of Marius lands and cities 
sufficient both for themselves and their brethren. 

When Marius inquired of their ambassadors who were 
their brethren, they answered, " The Teutones." The assem- 
bly laughed, and Marius replied in a taunting manner: " Do 
not trouble yourselves about your brethren ; for they have 
land enough, which we have given them, and they shall have 
it forever." The ambassadors, displeased at this answer, 
replied that the Cimbri would chastise him immediately, and 
that the Teutones would do the same when they arrived. 
" And they are not far off," said Marius ; "it would, there- 
fore, be very unkind in you to go away without saluting 
your brethren." At the same time, he ordered the chieftains 
of the Teutones to be brought forward, loaded with chains ; 



B. C. 113-Ior. THE CTMBRI AND THE TEUTONES. 465 

for they had been taken prisoners after their defeat, as they 
were endeavoring to escape over the Alps. 

The Cimbri thus compelled to fight alone, met with the 
same fate as the Teutones. The whole nation was annihi • 
lated, and the women, as did those of the Teutones, slew 
themselves to preserve their chastity. Though the victory 
was really won by Catulus and his lieutenant Sulla, yet the 
popular voice accorded the chief glory to the hero of Aquas 
Sextise, and hailed him as the third founder of the city with 
Romulus and Camillus. 

Second Servile War. — »From the year 103-101 b. c, 
Sicily was again a prey to the horrors of a servile war. 
A soothsayer, named Salvius, was made king by his 
fellow-bondmen, and soon had around him a force of 
20,000 foot and 2000 horse. With these troops he defeated 
a Roman army, when his success led to a general insurrec- 
tion. The senate, at this juncture, sent the consul M. Aquil- 
lius into the island. The rebellion was put down, and a 
wholesale extermination of the revolted slaves mercilessly 
carried on. The survivors were carried to Rome, and con- 
demned to fight with wild beasts ; but, disdaining to contrib- 
ute to the pleasure of their oppressors, they took their own 
lives. 



CHAPTER XXII. 



Saturninus and Glaucia. — The Social or Marsic War. 

— b. c. 90-89. 

Sixth Consulship of Marius (b. c. 100). — Hitherto 
brilliant and glorious, the career of Marius will be henceforth 
full of horrors. Wishing to perpetuate his power, he became 
again a candidate for the consulship. But he was destitute 
of the qualities requisite for a popular leader at Rome ; he 
had no power of oratory, and he lost his presence of mind in 
the noise and shouts of popular assemblies. In order, there- 
fore, to secure his election, he entered into close connection 
with Saturninus and Glaucia, demagogues both of the lowest 
stamp. The former was a candidate for the tribunate, and 
the latter for the pretorship. By their means, as well as by 



466 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXII. 

bribery, Marius was elected. So also was Glaucia ; but Sat- 
urninus was defeated. This last, on the evening of the 
election, killed his more successful rival ; and next morning, 
at an early hour, before the forum was full, prevailed upon 
the assistance to choose him to fill up the vacancy. 

Death of Saturninus (b. c. ioo). — Saturninus in his 
capacity of tribune proposed a lex frumentaria y whereby 
corn was to be sold to the people by the state, at a very low 
price. He also brought forward bills for founding new colo- 
nies in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia. By these measures 
he secured his reelection to the tribunate. Glaucia was, 
at the same time, a candidate for the consulship. But, fearing 
to be defeated by C. Memmius, with the help of Saturninus 
he murdered him in the comitia. Sensible people had 
already become alarmed at the course of these demagogues ; 
and this last atrocity emboldened the senate to declare them 
perduelles, or public enemies, and to invest the consuls with 
dictatorial powers. Marius, thus forced to act against his 
accomplices, betrayed much remissness, and strove hard to 
save their lives. But Saturninus, Glaucia, and the questor 
Saufeius, were all put to death by the partisans of the senate; 
and this body rewarded with the citizenship a slave, who 
claimed the honor of having killed Saturninus. Marius was 
now without influence in the state ; and, at the end of his 
consulship, set out on a tour through the east. He was so 
anxious, it is said, to recover his prestige, that he endeavored 
to rouse Mithridates to war, that Rome might again stand 
in need of his services. 

Origin of the Social, or Marsic, War (b. c. 91). — 
As we have already seen, some of the most prominent men 
of Rome, as Scipio Africanus and C. Gracchus, had long 
been convinced of the propriety of bestowing the Roman 
franchise upon the Latins and the Italian allies. In B. C. 91, 
the tribune M. Livius Drusus, who had acquired a just pop- 
ularity by several beneficial measures, revived the scheme ; 
but, as before, it met with insuperable opposition, on the part 
of the Roman nobility and populace alike. Drusus was assas- 
sinated in his own house ; and a law was passed, declaring all 
guilty of treason, who had assisted the cause of the allies. 
Many eminent men were condemned under this law. There- 
upon the allies, whose hopes were once more dashed to the 
ground, and who clearly saw that the Roman people would 
yield nothing except upon compulsion, had recourse to arms. 



B. C. 90-89. THE SOCIAL WAR. a 67 

The Allies take up Arms (b. c. 90). — Had the whole 
Italian people revolted at the same time, Rome must have 
succumbed. But the Etrurians, Latins, and Umbrians, toge- 
ther with the Campanians and the Cisalpine Gauls, held 
aloof, while the Sabines, Volscians, and other tribes already- 
possessed of the Roman franchise, supported the republic. 
Thus the insurrection was limited to the Sabellian tribes — the 
Marsians, Pelignians, Marrucinians, Vestinians, Picentines, 
Samnites, Apulians, and Lucanians. Of these the Marsians 
took the lead; on which account the struggle is termed 
indifferently the Marsic, or the social, war. Corfinium, a strong 
city of the Pelignians, was made the capital of the Italian 
confederation. The new government was to have 2 consuls, 
12 pretors, and a senate of 500 members. Q, Pompsedius 
Silo, a Marsian, and C. Papilius Mutilus, a Samnite, were 
chosen consuls. With them were many able lieutenants, 
who had learned the art of war under the best Roman gen- 
erals. The soldiers had also served in the Roman armies, 
and were equipped and disciplined in the same way. But 
the Romans greatly outnumbered their opponents, and they 
had the advantage which a single state always possesses over 
a confederation. Yet, the result of the first campaign was 
clearly in favor of the allies. 

Extension of the Franchise. — The first year of the 
war, Marius was the only general that gained some success 
over the rebels. But even his achievements fell much below 
the public expectation, either because the fatigues of the cam- 

Eaigns were beyond his bodily strength, or more probably 
ecause he was unwilling to destroy the allies, who had been 
among his most active partisans, and to whom he still looked 
for support in his future struggles with the nobility. The 
Roman government, therefore, saw the necessity of making 
concessions ; and the lex Julia, proposed by the consul 
Julius Caesar, conferred the franchise on all the Latin colonies, 
and on such of the allies as had remained faithful to Rome, 
or had laid down their arms. Thenceforth, disunion 
reigned among the confederates, and the cause declined. 
The following campaign was signalized by many victories on 
the Roman side. Sulla, on the one hand, drove the insur- 
gents out of Campania, subdued the Hirpini, and then 
penetrated into the very heart of Samnium ; Pompeius 
Strabo, on the other, forced into submission the Marrucinians, 
Vestinians, Pelignians, and the Marsians — a result greatly 



468 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXIII. 

facilitated by the lex Plautia Papiria* which, completing the 
arrangements of the lex Julia, granted everything that the 
allies had demanded before the war. By this law, all citizens 
of a town in alliance with Rome could obtain the Roman 
franchise, provided they were at the time resident in Italy, 
and registered their name with the pretor within 60 days. 
Not many, however, seem to have availed themselves of the 
opportunity, if we may judge from the fact that, while the 
census of the year 114 B. c. registered 394,336 Roman citi- 
zens, that of B. c. 86 numbered no more than 473,000. The 
Italians found it irksome to undertake the journey to Rome, 
and go through the prescribed round of the legal formalities 
and religious ceremonies. Moreover, pending the strict 
application of the agrarian laws, the franchise offered little 
attraction to distant residents, who would have to forego 
their local citizenship for a privilege they could seldom 
exercise, as the suffrage could only be given at Rome. Yet, 
the precedent, now for the first time established on so large a 
scale, bore ample fruit. The citizens of the Gallic towns 
between the Po and the Alps, were then admitted to the 
Latin, and before long to the full franchise, — a privilege sub- 
sequently conceded to various cities or states outside of Italy, 
in Spain, Gaul, Africa, and elsewhere. 

Cost of the Social War. — Though virtually brought 
to a close within two years, the social war cost the lives of 
more than 300,000 men, the flower of Rome and Italy. 
Among the confederates, the Marsian Pompsedius Silo was 
the most prominent figure. On the side of Rome, the chief 
laurels were gained by Sulla. During this war, the young 
Cneius Pompeius served his first campaign, and Cicero 
earned his first and only stipend. 



CHAPTER XXIIL 

The First Civil (b. c. 88-86) and the First Mithridatic 

(b.c 88-84) War. 

First Consulship of Sulla (b. c. 88). — Since the Cim- 

*So called after the tribunes M. Plautius Silvanus and C. Papir- 
ius Carbo, who proposed it. 



B. C. 132-63, MITHRIDATES THE GREAT. 4.69 

brie war, the popularity of Marius had been on the wane ; 
and, during the Marsic war, he had done little to restore his 
reputation. Sulla, on the contrary, uniting the talents of 
the statesman and the general, was foremost now before 
the eyes of the public. The senatorial party, moreover, 
looked on him as their champion, through whom they were 
in hopes of maintaining their ascendency. Sulla was accord- 
ingly elected consul for the year 88 ; and, news being received 
that Mithridates had expelled Ariobarzanes and Nicomedes 
from their kingdoms ol Cappadocia and Bithynia, he was 
entrusted with the command of the army sent for their res- 
toration. 

The Kingdom of Pontus. — The kingdom of Pontus, so 
called from being on the coast of the Pontics Euxinus, or 
Black Sea, and once a satrapy of the Persian empire, 
extended from the river Halys on the west, to tl^e frontiers 
of Colchis on the east. Even before the extinction of Per- 
sian rule, it became an independent state ; and, though 
v brought momentarily under Grecian yoke in the time of 
Alexander, it soon regained its independence. When the 
Romans made war on Aristonicus (b. c. 133), in order to 
secure the succession of Attalus in, they were assisted by 
Mithridates, king of Pontus, who for his services on this 
occasion received the province of Phrygia. The successor 
of this prince was his son Mithridates vi, surnamed Eupator 
and Dyonisius, but more commonly known as Mithridates 
the Great. 

Mithridates vi was only 12 years of age, at the 
time of his father's death. As he grew to manhood, 
he was distinguished forj bodily strength, and skill in 
all martial exercises. But still more extraordinary were his 
mental endowments. His naturally vigorous intellect had 
been improved by careful culture ; and so powerful was his 
memory, that he is said to have mastered 25 languages, 
being able to transact business, in their own peculiar dialect, 
with the deputies of all the tribes subject to his rule. Con- 
spicuous for military talents, he considerably enlarged his 
ancestral dominions in the east. On the west, he subdued 
the Tauric Chersonesus (now Crimea) and the Greek king- 
dom of Bosphorus, but was hemmed in by the power of 
Rome. More than once had he attempted to seize the king- 
doms of Bithynia and Cappadocia. But, on these occasions, 
Roman interference thwarted his projects of aggrandizement, 

40 



470 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXIH. 

and he prudently yielded. At length, however, when Ario- 
barzanes, king of Cappadocia, at the instigation of the Roman 
legates, M. Aquillius and L. Cassius, made predatory incur- 
sions into his territories, Mithridates, taking advantage of the 
social war which convulsed Italy, retaliated by seizing the 
coveted territories of Bithynia and Cappadocia. Then, profit- 
ing by Sulla's delay, whom the resistance of the Samnites 
and civil troubles detained in Italy, he not only overran 
Phrygia and Galatia, but boldly invaded the Roman province 
itself. Here, the universal discontent caused by the oppres- 
sion of Roman officials, greatly facilitated his progress ; and 
from Pergamus he sent orders that, in every city, all the 
Romans and Italians should on the same day be put to 
death. The sanguinary edict was obeyed ; and 80,000* 
persons were massacred. Nor was Mithridates content with 
these Asiatic conquests. He extended his sway over the 
flourishing islands of the ALgean, and sent his general Arche- 
laus into Greece, most of whose states, in the prospect of 
relief from Roman tax-gatherers, received their new masters 
with loud acclamations (b. C. 87). Thus the task entrusted 
to Sulla, had now swelled to the reconquest of one-half of the 
empire. Before he started on his important mission, the 
first civil war had begun. 

Beginning of the First Civil War (b. c. 88). — 
Marius saw with extreme jealousy the command of the 
eastern war given to his rival. By intrigues and violence, 
he raised a tumult in the city, and caused the appointment 
to be changed in his favor. But Sulla, who was still besieg- 
ing the Samnite garrison at Nola, at once marched with six 
legions to Rome, and forced his way into the city. The 
civil war had begun v The violence of Marius had been met 
by violence. The legions of Rome had slipped from the 
government to become the personal following of their leaders. 
Sulla, however, used his advantage with moderation. He 
protected the city from plunder; and only Marius and 
eleven others were declared public enemies. 

Adventures of Marius (b. c. 88-87). — Marius, being 
closely pursued, more than once narrowly escaped with his 
life. Near Minturnae, he avoided capture only by hurrying 
down to the sea, and swimming off to a vessel, on board of 
which he received temporary shelter. Put on shore soon 
after, at the mouth of the Liris, and abandoned by the sailors, 

* Some say as many as 150,000. 



b. c. S8-86. the first civil war 4 



471 



he first concealed himself in a hole near the river, and then 
for greater safety threw himself into the marsh. Notwith 
standing this, he was discovered, dragged out of the water, 
and delivered up, covered with mud, to the authorities of Min- 
turnae. The magistrates, in compliance with instructions 
received from Rome, sent a Cimbrian slave to put him to 
death in the dark dungeon wherein he was confined. But 
to the frightened barbarian the eyes of Marius seemed to 
dart forth fire, and a voice from the gloom demanded, 
" Wretch ! dare you slay Caius Marius ? " The Cimbrian 
fled in terror, exclaiming, " I cannot kill Caius Marius ! " 
and the magistrates, alarmed in turn, connived at the escape 
of their prisoner to Africa. Marius landed near the site of 
Carthage ; but he had scarcely put his foot on shore, when 
the pretor Sextilius sent an officer to bid him leave the 
country, or else he would carry into execution the decree of 
the senate. This last blow almost unmanned Marius ; grief 
and indignation for a time deprived him of speech, and his 
only reply was, " Tell the pretor that thou hast seen Caius 
Marius, a fugitive, sitting on the ruins of Carthage 1 " He 
then crossed over to the island of Cercina, where he was suf- 
fered to remain unmolested. 

Riots at Rome and Proscription (b. c. 87-86). — Sulla 
had remained in Rome till the consuls were elected for the 
following year. These were Cn. Octavius, who belonged to 
the aristocratical party, and L. Cinna, a professed champion 
of the popular side. The latter, in order to strengthen his 
party, brought forward a law incorporating the new Italian 
citizens among the 35 existing tribes, where their influence 
would be paramount. His colleagues, on the contrary, 
opposed this arrangement, wishing to form ten separate Ital- 
ian tribes that would consist of the new citizens exclusively. 
The two consuls had recourse to arms ; and, after a dreadful 
conflict and great slaughter, Cinna was driven out of the 
city. But he soon reappeared at the head of a formidable 
array of Samnites, Lucanians, and others ; in his train, too, 
was Caius Marius, whom his late sufferings had exasperate^ 
almost to madness. A dreadful massacre ensued, and the 
streets ran with the noblest blood of Rome. The consul 
Octavius was slain, while seated in his curule chair ; the great 
orator, M. Antonius, fell by the hands of assassins ; Q. Catulus, 
the conqueror of Cimbri, was obliged to put an end to his 
own life. Marius's appetite seemed only whetted by the 



472 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXIII. 



slaughter, and daily required fresh victims. To crown all, 
he and Cinna, without going through the form of an election, 
made themselves consuls for the following year, 86 B. C. 

Death of Marius (b. c. 87-83). — Marius was now con- 
sul for the seventh time, Though 70 years of age and 
broken by hardships, he was desirous of assuming the com- 
mand of the legions, and of wresting the conduct of affairs in 
the east from Sulla's control. But, finding the effort beyond 
his strength, he fell into despondency; and, on the 18th day 
of his consulship, after a short illness, died of an attack of 
pleurisy. Cinna then enrolled the Italians among the 35 
tribes ; proclaimed an adjustment of debts, to the great 
detriment of creditors ;* and sent his new colleague, Valerius 
Flaccus, with a large army to supersede Sulla. 

Sulla's Victories in the East (b. c. 87-83). — When 
Sulla quitted Italy, he determined to secure his own fortunes 
rather by the devotion of his soldiery than by the favor of 
any political party. With this object in view, he encouraged 
the licence of his troops, and his path was marked by devas- 
tation and sacrilege. He gave up to his men the sacred 
treasures of Epidaurus and Olympia ; and, when Athens, 
the first city that resisted him, fell into his hands (b. C 86), it 
was treated with more than the usual Roman barbarity, the 
soldiers being indulged in indiscriminate slaughter and 
plunder. From this scene of ruin and desolation, Sulla pro- 
ceeded to Bceotia, and at Chseronea encountered a vast 
army of Orientals, whom he totally defeated. A second vic- 
tory, at Orchomenus, broke the power of the king of Pontus, 
and compelled him not only to evacuate his conquests in 
Greece and the JEgean, but even to seek terms of peace. On 
surrendering Bithynia, Cappadocia, and the province of Asia, 
with a large portion of his fleet and treasures, Mithridates 
was admitted into amity with the republic (b. c. 84). Mean- 
while, the consul Flaccus had been assassinated by his sol- 
diers, who promoted Fimbria to the command in his place ; 
and Fimbria, finding himself deserted by his men, whom Sulla 
won over by bribery, had put an end to his own life. Being 
thus rid of all his enemies in the east, and leaving his legate 
L. Licinius Mureria in Asia, at the head of two legions, Sulla 
with 30,000 devoted veterans now returned to Italy. 

*He compelled them to accept the copper asin. payment for the 
silver sesterce, whose value was 4 times as great. 



B. C. 83-82. THE SECOND CIVIL WAR. yj^ 

CHAPTER XXIV 

The Second Civil War (b. c. 83-82). — Sulla's Dictatorship, 
Legislation, and Death (b. c. 81-78). 

Sulla's Return (b. c. 83). — Whilst Sulla caused the 
Roman power to be respected abroad, his opponents held 
indisputable sway at home. He had been declared a public 
enemy ; his property was confiscated and his house demol- 
ished ; his most distinguished adherents were murdered ; 
and his wife and children, to escape death, were forced to 
take refuge with him in Greece. These wrongs soured the 
naturally harsh disposition of Sulla. He publicly declared 
that his foes and the foes of the republic, whom he classed 
together, should on his arrival suffer condign punishment. 
On hearing this, both the senate, now half filled with Marians, 
and^the populace, were terrified ; and immense preparations 
were made to resist him. Fortunately for Sulla, his oppo- 
nents had now, Cinna being dead, no one of sufficient influ- 
ence and military reputation to assume the supreme com- 
mand. Their vast forces were scattered under different 
generals ; they were themselves divided by mutual jealousies, 
and their soldiers felt neither confidence in them, nor 
enthusiasm in the cause. Still, if all the Italians had 
remained faithful to the Marian party, the resistance would 
have proved well-nigh insuperable. Wishing, therefore, to 
detach them from his enemies, Sulla forbade his troops to 
do to their town or fields any injury, and he formed separ- 
ate treaties with all those who consented to receive his over- 
tures, securing to them all the rights and privileges of 
Roman citizens which they enjoyed. But with the Samnites 
no such accommodation was possible. Their object in join- 
ing the Marian party was to use it, first to conquer, and next 
to destroy Rome ; and, under the indomitable Pontius Tel- 
esinus, they were resolved to fight to death. 

Sulla Defeats His Enemies in Italy (b. c. 83-82). — 
Sulla advanced unopposed, as far as Campania. Here he 
gained his first victory, defeating the consul Norbanus, whom he 
forced to take refuge in Capua. The soldiers of Scipio, the 
other consul, deserting his standard, joined those of Sulla. 
Many distinguished Romans, among others M. Crassus and 
M. Lucullus, also took up arms in his behalf; and Cn. Pom- 
pey, then only 23 years of age, levied three legions to employ 



474 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXIV. 

in his service. Yet it was not till the following year (b, c, 82), 
that the struggle was brought to a decisive issue. Both the 
consuls of this year, the younger Marius and Papirius Carbo, 
were defeated, and the latter was even compelled to embark 
for Africa. But Rome, meanwhile, had nearly fallen into the 
power of its worst enemies, the Samnites and Lucanians. 
Their leader, the indomitable Pontius Telesinus, made a sud- 
den descent upon it, intending to burn and raze it to the 
ground. Sulla barely arrived in time to prevent the execu- 
tion of this design. A desperate encounter took place at the 
Colline gate. Sulla's left wing, which he personally com- 
manded, was routed ; but Crassus, with the right, broke 
the enemy's ranks, and retrieved the day. 50,000 men are 
said to have fallen on each side ; and 8,000 Samnites, who 
had surrendered on promise of their lives, were next morning 
butchered in cold blood. Pontius, with many officers of dis- 
tinction, had perished during the engagement ; others, who 
had been taken, were slain on the spot after the fight. 
Marius caused his own slave to dispatch him ; Sertorius fled to 
Spain; and thus the war in Italy was now virtually at an end. 
Proscription (Dec. to June, 82-81 b. c). — Sulla, not 
content with having subdued his enemies in the field, resolved 
to extirpate the popular party, root and branch. Lists of 
proscription were set up at Rome and throughout Italy. 
All persons on those lists were outlaws ; their property was 
confiscated to the state ; their children and grandchildren 
lost their votes in the comitia, and were excluded from all 
public offices. Whoever killed a proscribed person, or 
revealed his place of concealment, received two talents as a 
reward; whoever sheltered him, was punishable with death. 
From the Dec. of 82 to the following June, this system of 
authorized murder was continued. No one was safe ; for 
Sulla gratified his friends by placing on the fatal lists their 
private enemies, or persons whose property was coveted by 
them * An estate, a house, or even a piece of plate, was to 
men of no political party often a death-warrant. Of senators 

* Although the confiscated property belonged to the state, and had 
to be sold by public auction, the friends and dependents of Sulla 
purchased it at noniinal prices, as no one durst bid against them. 
Oftentimes, Sulla did not require the purchase money to be paid 
at all ; and, in many cases, he gave such property to his favorites 
without even the formality of a sale. Catiline, in particular, was the 
recipient of golden favors at Sulla's hands ; and Crassus, 'the richest 
of the Romans,' now laid the foundation of his enormous wealth. 



B. C. 81-79. SULLA 5 S DICTATORSHIP. 47c 

perhaps 200, of knights near 3000, and of the common peo- 
ple an unknown multitude were slain. But far more sweep- 
ing^still and indiscriminate was the destruction of the Italians. 
The inhabitants of those towns which had fought against 
Sulla, were deprived not only of the Roman franchise lately 
conferred on them, but of their lands. These were dis- 
tributed among Sulla's veterans, of whom 120,000 were 
settled * in colonies from end to end of the peninsula. While 
Sulla thus established throughout Italy a population devoted 
to his interests, he created at Rome a kind of body-guard 
for his protection, by giving the citizenship to some 10,000 
freedmen, late slaves of the proscribed, who were now called 
Cornelii after him their patron. 

Sulla's Dictatorship and Legislation (b. c. 81-79). 
— After the battle of the Colline gate, Rome lay at the feet 
of Sulla. So soon, therefore, as the death of both the consuls 
permitted it, he caused one of his creatures to be appointed 
interrex, and the latter caused Sulla to be invested with the 
dictatorship. This office he was empowered to retain at his 
own discretion, and he used its unlimited prerogative to 
restore, as far as possible, their ancient influence to the sen- 
ate and nobility. Hence, he gave again to the senators the 
exclusive possession of the highest tribunals, and made them 
independent of the censors ; he deprived the comitia tributa 
of their legislative and judicial functions ; he took away from 
the tribunes their vetoing power on senatorial legislation ; 
he decreed that the holding of the tribunate was a bar to 
being ever a candidate for any of the higher magistracies, 
and that none but senators could become tribunes. 

Abortiveness of Sulla's Legislation. — The efforts 
of Sulla to restore permanently the ascendency of the senate, 
proved wholly abortive. The selfish and corrupt aristocracy 
used their newly-recovered influence only for their own 
aggrandizement. The consequence was a general disgust in 
the capital and throughout the provinces. In eight years, 
the people regained their power. But, as neither class was fit 
to rule, anarchy followed ; and the Romans, in the end, had 
to submit to the despotism of the empire. 

Death of Sulla (b. c. 78). — After exercising absolute 

* Thus was an industrious agricultural population supplanted by 
an idle and licentious soldiery, among whom Catiline found most 
of his adherents. Etruria had perhaps a larger number of these 
colonies, than any other part of Italy. 



476 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXV. 

power for about two years, Sulla resigned the dictatorship, 
and retired to his estate at Puteoli, where, surrounded by the 
beauties of nature and art, he gave himself up unreservedly 
to those literary and sensual enjoyments in which he had 
always taken so much pleasure. But the days of the enfee- 
bled, worn-out statesman- were numbered. He was now tor- 
mented by the loathsome pedicular disease ; and, before many 
months, he whose hands were stained with the blood of so 
many thousands, died in consequence of the rupture of a 
blood-vessel. 

His Funeral. — The senate, faithful to the last, decreed 
to Sulla the honor of a public funeral. This the consul 
Lepidus in vain attempted to prevent. Sulla's veterans were 
summoned from their colonies, and Q. Catulus, L. Lucullus, 
and Cn. Pompey, placed themselves at their head. Lepidus 
was obliged to yield, and the gorgeous pageant remained 
undisturbed. The magistrates, the senate, the equites, the 
priests, and the Vestal virgins, as well as the veterans, 
accompanied the funeral procession to the Campus Martius. 
Hitherto it had been the custom of the Cornelia gens to bury, 
and not burn, their dead. But, in accordance with Sulla's 
own wish, who feared for his remains those insults which he 
had heaped on Marius's, his corpse was burnt, and the ashes 
thrown into the Anio. A monument was erected to him in 
the Campus Martius, with this epitaph supposed to have been 
written by himself: " Here lies Sulla, who never was out- 
done in good offices by a friend, nor in acts of hostility and 
revenge by an enemy. " 



CHAPTER XXV. 

Wars with Sertorius, Spartacus, the Pirates, and Mithri- 

dates. — b. c 79-6l. — pompey — crassus — lucullus. 

First Exploits of Pompey (b. c. 82-80). — The rise of 
Cneius Pompey to public station, was unusually early. His 
father Cn. Pompeius Strabo, a soldier of fortune, was consul 
in B. c. 89, and commanded an army against the Italians in 
the social war. Young Pompey, then only seventeen, served 
under him during this and the two following campaigns. 



B. C. 82-80. RISE OF POMPEY. 



477 



Cradled, as it were, in the camp, he made it his object from 
the first to secure the attachment of the troops ; and in this 
he succeeded so well that, on Sulla's return from the east, 
in b. c. 82, though still so young and holding no public 
office, he was able to raise an army of three legions. With 
these he gained a brilliant victory over the Marian generals, 
and on joining Sulla was received by him with the greatest 
distinction. Upon the conclusion of the war in Italy, Pom- 
pey was sent first into Sicily, and afterwards into Africa, 
where the Marian party still held their ground. His success 
was rapid and decisive ; and Sulla, beginning to grow jealous, 
required him to disband his troops in Africa. Pompey 
replied by leading his victorious army to Rome. Numbers of 
the citizens flocked out to meet him ; and the dictator him- 
self, thinking it best to head the procession, hailed the youth- 
ful conqueror, with the title of Magnus (the great). Pompey, 
though not yet a senator, demanded a triumph. Sulla at 
first refused ; but, pleased with the spirited answer of the 
young general, who bade him ' consider there were more 
persons ready to adore the rising than the setting sun,' he 
yielded ; and Pompey, then a simple knight, and only 24 
years of age, entered Rome in triumph (b. c. 80). 

Pompey and the Nobles (b. c. 79-77). — Pompey again 
exhibited his power, the following year, in successfully pro- 
moting the election of M. ^Emilius Lepidustothe consulship 
against the wishes of Sulla The latter contented himself 
with warning Pompey, as he met him returning from the 
comitia, " Young man, it is time for you to be awake ; for 
you have strengthened your rival." But Pompey was not 
wanting to himself. When Lepidus, on the death of Sulla, 
sought even by force of arms to repeal the dictator's laws, 
Pompey threw his weight into the scale of the other consul, 
Q. Catulus ; and, as his lieutenant, contributed greatly to the 
victories gained over Lepidus. The latter, after sustaining 
several defeats in Italy, fled to Sardinia, where he soon died. 
But, as his party still held out in the Cisalpine, Pompey went 
thither to quench the last embers of rebellion. Soon, how- 
ever, the senate beginning to distrust him, ordered him to 
disband his army. Under various pretexts, he kept his men 
together ; and, before long, the growing power of Sertorius 
compelled the senate to send him to Spain with the title of 
proconsul (b. c. 76). 

Sertorius in Spain (b. c. 82-72).~Sertorius, a Sabine 



AT 



Ancient rome. Chapt. xxv. 



by birth, had taken a prominent part in the civil wars, but 
was untainted with the guilt of the proscriptions. The ablest 
and the best of the Marian generals, he received the govern- 
ment of Spain in b. c. 82. Here he was hailed as a deliverer 
by the natives, whom he flattered with the hopes of estab- 
lishing an independent state, which might bid defiance to 
Rome. His influence was enhanced by the superstition of 
the people. He was accompanied on all occasions by a tame 
fawn, which they believed to be a favorite spirit. So attached 
did they become to his person, that he found no difficulty 
in collecting an army, with which he defeated all the generals 
sent against him by Sulla. Even Metellus, who had been 
consul, and in whose abilities much confidence was placed, 
could not cope successfully with him ; and it became neces- 
sary to send Pompey, to prosecute the Spanish war in con- 
junction with Metellus. 

Pompey ends the War in Spain (b. c. 76-72). — Pom- 
pey, on his arrival, found that he had a more formidable 
enemy to deal with, than any he had yet encountered. He 
suffered several defeats ; and, on one occasion, would have 
incurred a very severe loss, had he not received timely aid 
from Metellus. As the latter was much older than Pompey, 
this gave Sertorius occasion to remark at the time, " If the 
old woman had not come to his assistance, I would have 
given the boy a sound flogging, and sent him back to Rome." 
In course of time, however, the influence of Sertorius over 
the Spanish tribes became somewhat impaired, and he had 
to contend with the jealousy of his chief Roman officers. At 
last, his own lieutenant, Perperna, who aspired to the 
supreme command, caused him to be assassinated during a 
repast to which he had invited him. By this treacherous 
act, Perperna ruined both himself and his party. In his 
first encounter with Pompey, he was defeated, made prisoner, 
and put to death. As Metellus had taken no part in the 
final struggle, Pompey obtained the credit of ending the war. 
He, moreover, in reconstituting the government of Spain, dis- 
posed not merely of offices, but of estates and territories, in 
such a way as to bind to himself a multitude of partisans, 
clients, and dependents. 

Spartacus. — The struggle against Sertorius and Perperna 
was not yet ended, when a righteous retribution overtook 
the Romans for their love of the cruel sports of the amphi- 
theatre. The gladiators were generally prisoners taken in 



B. C. 73-71. THE SERVILE WAR. 479 

war, and sold to persons who trained them in schools, to 
be let out to pretors or ediles, on occasions of public enter- 
tainment. There was such a school at Capua; and, among 
the gladiators, was a Thracian, named Spartacus, originally a 
chief of banditti. This man planned an escape with some 70 
of his comrades, and led them to a crater of Vesuvius, then 
?*n extinct volcano (b. c. 73). Here he was joined by such 
multitudes of slaves, gladiators, Apulian shepherds, and 
Marian veterans, that his numbers were successively estimated 
at forty, seventy, and a hundred thousand. 

War of the Gladiators (b. c. 73-71) : Crassus. — For 
upwards of two years Spartacus was master of Italy. Not 
only were several pretors, but even both the consuls of the 
year 72, ignominiously defeated. At last, in 71, the com- 
mand was intrusted to Crassus, who, in the absence of Pom- 
pey, was the ablest general of the republic. Six legions were 
given him, in addition to tiie remains of the consular armies 
already in the field. Crassus, after restoring discipline 
among his soldiers by decimating them, led them against 
the rebels. The gladiators were driven to the extreme 
point of Bruttium, and shut up in Rhegium by superior 
numbers and strong lines of circumvallation. Having 
attempted vainly to cross the straits into Sicily, Spartacus 
forced his way through the lines of Crassus and swept north- 
ward, but was overtaken with the main body of his followers. 
A desperate battle ensued, in which Spartacus was slain with 
40,000 men. About 6oco were taken prisoners, whom 
Crassus impaled on each side of the Appian road, between 
Rome and Capua. A body of 5000 fugitives fell in with 
Pompey, then returning from Spain, and were also extermin- 
ated. For this trifling advantage, Pompey took to himself 
the credit of concluding the servile war, and wrote to the 
senate, " Crassus, indeed, has defeated the enemy, but I 
have extirpated them by the roots." 

Pompey and Crassus Consuls (b. c. 70). — Pompey and 
Crassus now approached the city at the head of their armies, 
and each laid claim to the consulship. Neither of them was 
by law qualified for the office. Pompey had filled as yet no 
subordinate civil magistracy, had not even been questor, and 
was only in his 35th year. Crassus was still pretor, and two 
years ought to elapse before he could become consul. But 
both generals having mutually agreed to support each other's 
candidacy, the senate dared not openly resist. Pompey, 



480 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXV. 



moreover, declared himself the advocate of popular rights, 
and promised to restore the tribunitian power. He was 
elected by acclamation, and entered the city in triumph, Dec. 
31st, B. C. 71. On the day following, he inaugurated his first 
consulship. One of his first acts was the bringing of- a law 
for the restoration of the tribunitian power, which was passed 
with little opposition. Pompey lent also the weight of his 
influence to the pretor L. Aurelius Cotta, when the latter 
proposed a bill whereby the judices (judges) were to be 
taken in future from among the senators, the knights, and the 
officers of the treasury (tribiini czrarii). By these acts Pom- 
pey broke with the aristocracy, and became the popular hero. 

The Mediterranean Pirates. — By the conquest of 
Greece thousands of expert mariners had been driven from 
the continent to the islands, and from the islands to their 
ships. The victories of the Romans in Asia, together with 
the frightful iniquities of proconsular rule, increased the 
number of those hardy adventurers ; and, when Sulla required 
Mithridates (b. c. 84) to dismantle his armaments, the sailors, 
carrying off their vessels to the fortified harbors of the 
pirates in Cilicia and Crete, their chief strongholds, further 
added to their power, so that they soon became absolute 
masters throughout the Mediterranean. The Romans, 
whose attention had lately been wholly absorbed by the 
social and civil wars, were at last aroused to a sense of their 
danger. In the year 78 B. c. a war was begum, which, though 
carried on for several campaigns, left the pirates as formid- 
able as ever. Driven from one point, they reappeared at 
another ; and, not content with plundering wealthy cities and 
distant coasts, they made descents upon the Appian road, 
and carried off Roman magistrates with their lictors. All 
communication between Rome and the provinces was cut 
off by sea, or at least rendered extremely dangerous. The 
corn-ships of Sicily and Africa, upon which Rome to a great 
extent depended for its subsistence, could not reach the city, 
and the price of provisions in consequence rose enormously. 
Such a state of things had become intolerable, and all eyes 
were now directed to Pompey. 

The Gabini^n Law. — At the beginning of b. c. 67, 
the tribune A. Gabinius brought forward a bill, proposing 
that the people should elect a man of consular rank, to be for 
three years invested with absolute power over the Mediter- 
ranean and its coasts for 50 miles inland, and to have the 



B. C 67. THE GABINIAN LAW. 48 1 

disposal of 120,000 foot, 5000 horse, 500 galleys, and 6000 
Attic talents. Though the bill did not actually mention 
Pompey, its object was clear. The aristocracy were in the 
utmbst alarm. Yet, despite their strenuous opposition, sup- 
ported by the eloquence of Q. Catulus and Q. Hortensius, 
the bill was passed, and the price of the provisions at Rome, 
immediately fell — a fact which showed the immense confi- 
dence which all parties placed in the military abilities of 
Pompey. 

Pompey Destroys the Pirates (b. c. 67). Pompey s 
plans were formed with great skill, and crowned with complete 
success. He divided the Mediterranean into 13 portions, ap- 
pointing a commander for each. His lieutenants, thus distribu- 
ted, hunted the pirates out of every bay and creek,while he 
with a select squadron sweeping the middle Mediterranean 
chased the enemy eastward. A period of forty days sufficed 
to clear the western seas, and restore the communication of 
Italy with Spain and Africa. Then, after spending a short 
time in Italy, Pompey again sailed, and within 49 days 
forced the pirates to the Cilician coast. Here, after killing 
a number of them and making besides about 20,000 prisoners, 
he compelled the rest to surrender. Thus within the space 
of three months was the war terminated. 

The Second Mithridatic War (b. c. 83-82). — Murena, 
whom Sulla had left to hold command in Asia, was eager to earn 
the honor of a triumph. Pretending, therefore, that Mithri- 
dates had not yet evacuated the whole of Cappadocia, he 
invaded Pontus first in 83, and again in the ensuing spring. 
Mithridates, wholly unprepared for so flagrant a breach of 
the treaty lately concluded with Sulla, was taken by surprise, 
and offered no opposition to the first incursion of the 
Romans. But, when Murena reappeared, he met and 
defeated him on the banks of the Halys. At this juncture, 
peremptory orders from Sulla required Murena to desist 
from hostilities, and the king of Pontus consented to with- 
draw into his own territory. Thus ended what is commonly 
called the second Mithridatic War. 

Preparations of Mithridates. — Mithridates was 
aware that Sulla's present intervention, as well as his former 
peace, was but a makeshift for the occasion; and that the 
haughty republic would never suffer the massacre of her 
citizens in Asia to remain unpunished. His own ambition 
too was now, as before, encouraged by the disaffection of 

41 



4 8 2 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXV. 

the provincials. Hence all his efforts were directed towards 
the formation of an army capable of contending with the 
soldiers of Rome. With this view, he armed his barbarians 
after the Roman fashion ; and, aided by Marian refugees, 
strove by thorough discipline to bring his troops up to a 
state of real efficiency. Having further strengthened himself 
by concluding an alliance with Sertorius, upon the death of 
Nicomedes III, king of Bithynia, he resolved to oppose the 
Roman occupation of that country (b. c. 74). 

Beginning of the Third Mithridatic War (b. c. 74). 
— Mithridates took the field at the head of 120,000 foot and 
16,000 horse, trained to the use of Roman weapons, and 
relieved from the luxurious encumbrances usually fatal to 
Oriental armies. He had, in addition, 100 scythed chariots 
and a fleet larger than any which the Romans could com- 
mand. The two consuls of this year, L. Licinius Lucullus and 
M. Aurelius Cotta, had been dispatched to Asia ; but neither 
was in time to oppose the first irruption of Mithridates. The 
king of Pontus traversed without obstacle almost the whole 
of Bithynia ; and, when at length Cotta ventured to give him 
battle under the walls of Chalcedon, his army and fleet were 
totally defeated. Hence Mithridates proceeded to lay siege 
to Cyzicus, both by sea and land. 

Siege of Cyzicus (b. c. 73). — The brave resistance of 
Cyzicus allowed Lucullus time to reach the scene of hostili- 
ties. But, not being strong enough to raise the siege by 
direct attack, from an advantageous post near by he con- 
tented himself with cutting off the supplies of the besiegers 
by land, while the storms of winter prevented them from 
receiving any by sea. Thus it was not long before famine 
began to be felt in the camp of Mithridates ; and, all his assaults 
upon the city having failed, he was obliged early in the fol- 
lowing year to abandon the enterprise. 

Mithridates Expelled from Pontus (b. c. 72). — 
Mithridates withdrew by sea with part of his troops, directing 
his generals to lead the rest by land to Lampsacus. But 
both the fleet and the land-army were overtaken by the 
Romans, and signally defeated. Bithynia was freed of its 
invaders, and the war was transferred into the heart of the 
king's dominion. Here Mithridates, who had raised a fresh 
army, was again put to flight, and followed so closely by the 
victors that he must have fallen into their hands, had not a 
mule laden with gold been let loose between himself and his 



B. C. 74-63. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 43? 

pursuers. This treasure diverted the attention of the soldiers ; 
and thus a more important prey — the king himself — escaped 
theni. 

Tigranes. — Expelled from Pontus, Mithridates fled into 
Armenia, to claim assistance of his son-in-law, Tigranes. 
Unwilling to engage openly in war with Rome, this prince 
for nearly two years refused to admit the fugitive monarch to 
his presence. At last, however, offended at the arrogance 
of Appius Claudius, whom Lucullus had sent to demand 
the surrender of Mithridates, Tigranes not only rejected the 
request, but determined at once to prepare for war. 

Settlement of Asia (b. c. 70). — Lucullus, while wait- 
ing for the return of Claudius, devoted his attention to the 
settlement of Asia, which was suffering severely from the op- 
pression of the farmers of the public taxes. He put a stop to 
their exactions, and earned the gratitude of the natives. But 
the anger of the publicani was aroused, and they continued 
to utter complaints against him until he was recalled. 

Battle of Tigranocerta (b. c. 69). — The kingdom of 
Armenia, at this time, was at the height of its power. No 
longer confined to the mountain tract in which the Euphrates 
and the Tigris rise, it stretched from the Euxine to the 
Caspian, and westward encroached upon Cilicia, Cappadocia, 
and a large part of Syria. The sovereign of these extensive 
territories, looking on himself as the successor of the old 
Persian monarchs, after their example affected to be called 
King of kings. In Tigranes, the reigning prince, was seen 
an example of* Oriental despotism. Relying on the multi- 
tude of his forces, he could not be led to doubt for a moment 
the result of a conflict even with Rome ; and, surrounded by 
55,030 horsemen, 150,000 heavy-armed infantry, 20,000 
slingers, and 35,000 pioneers, he confidently awaited near 
Tigranocerta the Roman general, who had invaded his ter- 
ritory at the head of 15,000 men. " If they come as ambas- 
sadors," Tigranes remarked at the sight of the enemy, "they 
are too many ; if as soldiers, they are too few." Of short 
duration, however, was the despot's fond delusion. In an 
instant, his mailed horsemen were cut to pieces ; and the rest 
of his army, thrown into irremediable confusion, fled in dis- 
order. The royal city of Tigranocerta fell with all its riches 
into the hands of the victors. 

Battle of Artaxata (b. c. 68). — Tigranes had pur- 
posely given battle before the arrival of Mithridates, in order 



484 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXV. 

not to lose any portion of the glory which he anticipated. 
Taught by his defeat, he now resigned the conduct of the 
war to his father-in-law. The two kings levied another army 
of 10,000 foot and 25,000 horse ; but, instead of venturing 
on a general engagement, they merely strove to harass the 
enemy by frequent skirmishes and to intercept his con- 
voys. Lucullus, finding it impossible to bring them to a 
decisive action, marched against Artaxata, the capital of 
Armenia, where Tigranes had left his family and his treasure. 
This movement forced the allied monarchs to follow him, and 
risk a battle, which ended in their rout. But the early severity 
of the season, and the murmurs of his soldiers, prevented 
Lucullus from pushing on to Artaxata, and thus terminating 
the war. 

MlTHRIDATES REENTERS PONTUS (B. C. 68). — The Spirit 

of Mithridates was not as yet broken. From the scene of his 
last defeat he hastened back to Pontus, the defence of which 
was entrusted to Fabius, one of the lieutenants of Lucullus. 
As the oppression of the Romans had excited a general dis- 
affection, the people crowded around the standard of their 
newly- returned sovereign. Fabius was defeated, and com- 
pelled fo shut himself up in the fortress of Cabira. In the 
following spring, Triarius, another lieutenant of Lucullus, 
with his whole force of 7,000 men, was completely annihil- 
ated — a heavier blow than the Romans, for many a year, had 
experienced. 

Recall of Lucullus (b. c. 67). — From the field of 
Artaxata Lucullus, turning aside to Mesopotamia, besieged 
and captured Nisibis. But the successes of Mithridates in 
Pontus recalled him into that country. At his approach, 
Mithridates, again quitting his kingdom, withdrew into 
lower Armenia, and awaited there in a strong position the 
arrival of his ally, Tigranes. But the further proceedings of 
Lucullus were paralyzed by the mutinous spirit of his own 
troops. Their discontent was fomented by P. Clodius, and 
encouraged by reports from Rome, where the knights and 
partisans of Pompey were loud in their clamors against 
Lucullus. They charged him with protracting the war from 
motives of avarfce and ambition; and the soldiery, often 
checked by him in their spirit of rapacity, readily joined in 
the general outcry. Accordingly, the allied monarchs, after 
the junction of their troops, were able to overrun Pontus and 
Cappadocia without opposition. The adversaries of Lucul- 



B. C. 74-63. THIRD MITHRIDATIC WAR. 485 

lus, availing themselves of this circumstance, caused the 
appointment of one of the consuls, M. Acilius Glabrio, to the 
province of Bithynia with the command of the war against 
Mithridates. But the incompetence of this man soon rend- 
ered it necessary to intrust the direction or affairs in the east 
to abler hands. 

The Manilian Law. — In B. c. 66, the tribune C. Mani- 
lius brought forward a bill giving to Pompey the command 
of the war against Mithridates, with unlimited sway over the 
fleet and army in the east, and with proconsular rights 
throughout Asia, as far as Armenia. As Pompey 's actual com- 
mission, in virtue of the Gabinian law, already extended over 
the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean, by this new meas- 
ure he would be invested with absolute authority over the 
greater part of the Roman world. Such power the aristoc- 
racy rightly deemed excessive, and strenuous opposition was 
made to the bill, especially by Catulus and Hortensius. But 
Caesar and Cicero supported it, the one b.y the weight of his 
growing influence, the other by his eloquence;* and the 
people, who thought nothing too exalted for their favorite, 
cheerfully voted the Manilian law. 

End of the Mithridatic War (b. c. 66-63). — The 
forces of the enemy whom Pompey was directed to crush) 
were already thoroughly broken; but his skillful plan oi 
operations certainly hastened the downfall of Mithridates. 
For, by setting the Parthians against Tigranes so as to give 
him occupation at home, and by judiciously stationing his 
fleet in different squadrons along the coast of Asia Minor, 
Pompey effectually cut off the king of Pontus from all 
foreign assistance. Thus completely thrown back on his 
own resources, Mithridates, who had with him only 30,000 
men, did not dare venture an engagement, and withdrew 
gradually to the frontiers of Armenia. For a long time, in- 
deed, he succeeded in avoiding a battle; but he was at length 
surprised as he marched through a narrow pass, and com- 
pletely defeated. Escaping with a few horsemen, he fled to 
Tigranes, who this time refused him all shelter and assistance. 
The fallen monarch then fought his way, through a thousand 
perils, to his own distant dominions in the Cimmerian Bos- 
phorus, where, though secure against the Roman eagles, he 
found himself enveloped in revolts and intrigues among his 

" : >*In an oration which has come down to us — Pro Leg-e Manilla. 



4 S6 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVI. 

own people. Threatened with death by his son Pharnaces, * 
the aged monarch took poison, which he constantly carried 
with him. But his constitution had been so long inured to 
antidotes, that the poison produced no effect ; and he requested 
one of his Gaulish mercenaries to dispatch him with his sword. 
Roman Supremacy extended over Syria, Phoenicia, 

CCELESYRIA, AND PALESTINE (B. C. 66-62). — Unwilling tO 

pursue Mithridates amidst the barren regions of the Euxine and 
the Caspian, Pompey led his victorious troops into Armenia, 
where he received the submission of Tigranes, together with 
the surrender of all this prince's claims to Syria, Phoenicia, 
Cilicia, Galatia, and Cappadocia. He next (b. c. 65) re- 
duced Pontus to the form of a Roman province. Thence 
marching into Syria, he deposed Antiochus Asiaticus, and 
compelled the neighboring princes who had established 
kingdoms on the ruins of the Syrian empire, to submit to 
Rome ^B. c. 64). Phoenicia, Coelesyria, and Palestine, were 
likewise conquered (b. c. 63). In Palestine, two brothers, 
Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, were angrily contesting the dig- 
nity of high-priest, to which was annexed also the temporal 
sovereignty, and the quarrel was referred to Pompey. But 
the rashness of Aristobulus caused his own imprisonment 
and the storming of Jerusalem, with the slaughter of 10,000 
Jews. The temple was profaned by the presence of the 
Roman standards, and Pompey sacrilegiously entered the 
Holy of Holies, f Having imposed a tribute and demol- 
ished the walls of Jerusalem, he carried off Aristobulus to 
Rome, and left to Hyrcanus the priesthood and principality. 
But the authority of tjie latter was limited to Judea proper, 
and he was not allowed either the crown or the title of 
king. Henceforth Judea ceased to be a kingdom, and was 
subject to Rome. 



CHAPTER XXVI. 

Cicero. — Catiline. — Cato. 



Cicero's Early Life.— Born at Arpinum (b. c. 106) of 
a knightly family, none of whose members had ever held 

* Pharnaces, after his father's death, was confirmed by Pompey 
in the possession of the kingdom of Bosphorus. 

t No human being, except the high-priest, had before penetrated 
into this sacred spot. 



B. C. io6-7d. CICERO* 487 

any curule office, * Cicero gradually rose in general esteem 
by his eloquence and integrity of life. After a thorough 
course of studies and a most laborious preparation, at the 
age of 26 he came forward as a pleader. The first of his 
extant speeches in a civil suit, is that for P. Quintius (b. c. 81) ; 
the first delivered upon a criminal trial, was in defence of 
Sex. Roscius of Ameria, accused of having murdered his 
father. The charge appears to have been a mere conspiracy. 
But the accuser was a favorite with Sulla, and few were will- 
ing to incur the displeasure of the tyrannical dictator. 
Young Cicero boldly affronted this danger, and secured the 
acquittal of his client. On prudential motives, however, and 
under pretence of his health, his friends thought it best that 
he should withdraw for awhile from Italy. Cicero, therefore, 
went abroad ; and, after visiting the principal philosophers 
and rhetoricians of the east, in his thirtieth year returned to 
Rome, so strengthened and improved in bodily and mental 
powers that he soon eclipsed all his competitors at the bar. 
Hence in b. c. 76, although unsupported by any family 
interest, he was elected questor ; f and in this capacity served 
in Sicily under Sex. Peducaeus, pretor of Lilybseum. The 
metropolis was at this time visited by a scarcity of corn. 
Cicero, in that delicate situation, acquitted himself with such 
address as to supply the clamorous wants of the people, 
without oppressing the province from which the provisions 
were raised, and thus won universal approbation. During 
his edileship— an office to which he at once was elected, 
when he reached the legal age — he made his first appearance 
as public prosecutor, and brought to justice Verres, late 
pretor in Sicily, who was charged with high crimes and mis- 
demeanors in his government. In Cicero's famous orations 
against this official — no bad type of the men of his class, 
is found a graphic portrait of a provincial tyrant. 

Verres. — About the time of Sulla's abdication, Caius 
Verres, accompanied the pretor Dolabella to his government 
of Cilicia. On his way thither, he extorted a sum of money 
from the chief magistrate of Sicyon, by smoking him with a 
fire of green wood till he yielded. At Athens, Delos, Chios, 

* Cicero, therefore, never was anything beyond a new man, novus 
homo, 

f This was the first step on the official ladder. > This dignity, as he 
already possessed the necessary property qualification, gave him a 
seat in the senate. 



4 SS ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. X3CVI. 

Erythrcea, and Halicarnassus, he shared with his chief the 
plunder of the sacred edifices. At Samos, he stripped a 
famous temple on his own account. At Perga, he scraped 
the heavy coat of gilding from the statue of Diana. From 
Miletus he stole a fine ship provided for his conveyance. At 
Lampsacus, he sought to dishonor the daughter of the first 
citizen of the place ; and, when he was resisted by her father 
and brother, he charged them with attempting his life, and 
obtained their execution. Such were the atrocities of the 
young ruffian, while yet a mere dependent of the proconsul. 
Being appointed questor, he quickly extorted from two to 
three millions of sesterces, with which he was enabled to pay 
for his election to the pretorship. 

As propretor in Sicily (b. c. 73), Verres sold both his 
patronage and his decisions, making sport alike of the laws, 
religion, fortunes, and lives of the provincials. Not a single 
senator of the 65 cities in the island was elected without 
offering him a bribe, and he levied for his own profit many 
hundred thousand "bushels of grain beyond the authorized 
tithe. But Verres had a taste for art, as well as a thirst 
for lucre. Wherever he stopped, he extorted gems, vases, 
trinkets, antiques, curiosities,- ornaments of gold and silver, 
even statues of the gods — the objects of local worship, all of 
which were destined to decorate his villas. The Roman 
treasury suffered, as well as the Sicilian people ; for Verres 
embezzled the sums advanced to pay for the supply of corn 
to the city. He left the fleet without equipments ; and, when 
it was worsted by the pirates, he executed the officers for 
cowardice. He crowned his enormities by crucifying a 
Roman trader on the beach, in sight of Italy, that he might 
address to his native shores the ineffectual cry, " I am a 
Roman citizen ! " 

Impeachment of Verres* (b. c. 70). — Such was the man 
whom Cicero determined to bring to justice. Verres met* his 
impeachment with characteristic boldness. Strenuous efforts 
mere made by him and his influential patrons, either to put 
off the trial indefinitely, or to turn it into a sham, by wresting 
the case from the hands of Cicero and procuring the appoint- 
ment of a friend as public prosecutor. Both these attempts 

* State trials were held in the forum, where a temporary tribunal 
with accommodation for counsel, witnesses, and jury was erected 
in the open air. The ordinary trials took place in halls, called 
basilicce, erected on the north and south sides of the forum. 



B. C, 70. IMPEACHMENT OF VERRES. 489 

were defeated by Cicero's energy and spirit. In less than 
two months, he traversed the whole of Sicily collecting evi- 
dence, and returned attended by all the necessary witnesses. 
Their depositions and his documentary evidence constituted 
a mass of testimony so decisive, that Verres, after hearing 
the brief opening speech of his prosecutor, despaired of the 
contest and went into exile. The full pleadings, however, 
which were to have been delivered, had the trial. been permit- 
ted to run its ordinary course, were subsequently published 
by Cicero, and are among the most magnificent pieces of 
declamation found in any language. 

Cicero's Oratorical Preeminence. — The result of 
this trial was to raise Cicero at once to the leadership of the 
Roman bar, a place before occupied by Hortensius, eight 
years his senior, and by C. Aurelius Cotta. Hortensius had 
the advantage of the most extraordinary memory, a musical 
voice, and a rich flow of language. He had till now tried 
hard to retain his forensic supremacy, but from that moment 
seems to have quietly yielded to the rising fame of his 
younger rival. Cicero, in his edileship (b. c. 69), conducted 
himself with singular propriety ; and, after the customary 
interval of two years, he was returned at the head of the list 
as pretor. It was during his pretorship (b. c. 66) that, first 
appearing in the capacity of a political orator, he delivered 
from the rostra his celebrated address to the people in sup- 
port of the Manilian law — a splendid panegyric of Pompey, 
which gained him the friendship of this powerful person, 
together with an increase of the popular favor, and did much 
to pave his way to the consulship. 

Catiline. — The wealth accruing from the conquest of 
the east, overthrew at Rome all moral barriers to the torrent 
of indulgence. Luxury and dissipation, political and private 
gambling, converted men of rank into needy and reckless 
adventurers. Among these, none was so conspicuous or so 
able, as L. Sergius Catiline. His birth, his high connections, 
his iron frame equally capable of enduring the stern toils of 
war and the excesses of debauch, his address in bodily exer- 
cises, made him a model for the younger nobles, and gave 
him an extraordinary ascendency over them. Catiline was 
their friend, their champion, their idol. Though tainted 
with crimes, and laden with infamy to such a degree that 
he was believed to have made away with his brother, his 
first wife, and his son, he became pretor in B. c. 68, and 



49 o ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVI. 

was governor of Africa the following year, during which 
magistracy he amassed enough, he thought, to satisfy his 
creditors and purchase the consulship. But a charge of mal- 
versation which met him on his return from Africa, dis- 
qualified him to be a candidate, and his first object was to 
procure his acquittal. This being obtained by means of 
bribes, and a numerous body of supporters having been won 
over, he now preferred his suit (b. c. 64) for the consulship, 
not doubting that he should be elected, together with his 
friend C. Antonius, a weak man, whose insignificance would 
enable him to govern the state according to his own caprice. 

Consulship of Cicero (b. c. 63). — Besides Catiline and 
Antonius, there was a third candidate for the consulship, M. 
Tullius Cicero. Much as the nobles despised him as a new 
man, they joined the knights and Pompey's friends in giving 
him their support, in order to exclude Catiline, whose inten- 
tions were suspected. The consequence was that Cicero 
and Antonius were returned, the former almost by acclama- 
tion, the latter by a small majority over Catiline. Once 
consul, Cicero, renouncing his connection with the popular 
party, became a staunch supporter of the aristocracy. He 
successfully opposed an agrarian law proposed by the 
tribune Rullus, and defended Rabirius, an aged senator, 
accused of having been concerned in the death of Saturninus. 
But the attention of Cicero was chiefly directed to the move- 
ments of Catiline. 

The Conspiracy of Catiline (b. c. 63). — Since his 
repulse from the consulship, Catiline had been gathering 
round him a band of profligate young nobles, and needy 
adventurers of all classes. He had partisans who were col- 
lecting and drilling troops for him, in several parts of Italy. 
His promises to his followers were : the division among them- 
selves of all offices of honor and emolument, the abolition of 
debts, the exile or murder of the wealthiest citizens, and the 
confiscation of their property. All this he would effect so 
soon as he was made consul, an office for which he was 
again a candidate, and to which there was but one bar — 
Cicero's opposition and vigilance. Cicero's death was accord- 
ingly decided upon, and assassins were hired to kill him 
during the election of the incoming consuls. But the plot 
was discovered, and the election put off. When it did take 
place, Cicero appeared in the comitia, wearing somewhat 
ostentatiously a corselet of bright steel, to show that he knew 



B. C. 63-62. THE CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. 49 r 

his danger, and surrounded by a strong force of the younger 
citizens of the middle class. Thanks to this, the election 
passed off quietly, and Catiline was again rejected. Driven 
to despair by this fresh disappointment, he resolved at once 
to bring matters to a crisis. On the night of the 6th of Nov., 
summoning his chief partisans, he made arrangements for 
an immediate outbreak. At the concerted moment, his 
adherents outside of Rome were to advance simultaneously 
against the city, whilst the conspirators within would, in a 
hundred places, set it on fire, murder Cicero, and seize the 
reins of government. 

The First Speech against Catiline (Nov. 8). — 
Happily the whole plot was betrayed* to Cicero. Calling 
immediately a meeting of the senate in the temple of Jupiter 
Stator, a strong position on the Palatine, the consul addressed 
the arch-conspirator personally in that eloquent invective 
which has come down to us as his First Oration against 
Catiline. The wretch at first attempted a justification. But, 
the senators shouting in his ears the cries of ' enemy ' and 
1 parricide,' he lost all self-control, and rushed forth, exclaim- 
ing that he would ' smother the conflagration of his own 
house in the ruin of the city.' At nightfall, leaving the chief 
control of affairs at Rome to his associates Lentulus and 
Cethegus, he proceeded to join his armed adherents at Fesulae. 

Execution of Catiline's Accomplices. — When on 
the morrow the flight of Catiline was known, Cicero deliv- 
ered his Second Speech, which was addressed to the people 
in the forum. The senate, on its part, declared Catiline a 
public enemy, and the consul Antonius was sent against him, 
while Cicero remained to guard the city. His chief object 
now was to obtain such evidence, as should warrant him in 
apprehending the conspirators who were still within the walls. 
This was furnished by the imprudence of Lentulus and 
Cethegus, who entrusted to certain ambassadors 
of the Allobroges a paper signed by themselves, 
wherein the nature of the plot was set forth. With 
this document in his possession,f Cicero arraigned the con- 

~*Through Fulvia, the mistress of L. Curius, one of Catiline's 
intimate associates. 

fHow the ambassadors, after revealing the disclosures of Lentu- 
lus to the senator L. Fabius Sanga, were directed to obtahi t a 
written paper signed by the ringleaders, and on leaving the city 
were intercepted with this document, forms the subject of the 
Third Oration, delivered in the forum. 



492 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVI. 



spirators before the senate, and their guilt was established 
beyond the possibility of a doubt. They were declared per- 
duelles, or public enemies. On Dec. 5th, the senate again 
met, to decide upon their fate. Silanus, consul elect, who 
spoke first, pronounced for death, and all the consulars fol- 
lowed on the same side. But, when it came to Caesar's turn 
to speak, he gave his vote for perpetual imprisonment, and, 
encouraged by him, many raised their voice for mercy. 
Cicero, who desired the death of the conspirators, tried to 
check the current of opinion ; but, mighty as he was in the 
forum, he had little influence over the senate. It was differ- 
ent, however, when Cato rose, and, in a tone of deep con- 
viction demanded the instant execution of the criminals. His 
views were adopted by a majority of the members present, 
and a decree passed to that effect. The knights, who waited 
impatiently for. the result, were furious against Caesar, and 
could hardly be restrained from assassinating him. Cicero 
took care that the sentence should be executed without delay. 
The condemned men were brought to the Tullianum, the 
prison under the Capitoline, and there strangled. When 
Cicero, who attended to the last, traversed the forum on his 
way home, he exclaimed to the crowds of people through 
which he made his way,' ' Vixermit — They have lived ! ' 
and the people shuddered in silence. 

Death of Catiline (b. c. 62). — Outside the walls of 
Rome, the officers of the senate had been no less successful 
in repressing the insurrection. In Etruria alone was the 
resistance serious and! obstinate. • Catiline had there assem- 
bled 20,000 men, but of these one-fourth only were fully 
armed. Against him there advanced from Rome the consul 
Antonius, while his rear was menaced by a second army 
under Metellus Rex, lately returned from the east. The 
news of the executions at Rome threw Catiline into despair. 
His men deserted him by whole cohorts, and soon no more 
than 4000 remained under his standard. Foreseeing the 
ruin which must fall upon him, he tried to escape westward 
into the Province, but the passes were blocked by Metellus, 
and he was forced to turn and face Antonius again. The 
armies met near Pistoria. The half-hearted consul feigned 
sickness, and left the command of his legions to Petreius. 
After a short but sharp struggle, the rebels were cut to 
pieces, and the head of Catiline, who died fighting gallantly 
in advance of his troops, was cut off and sent to Rome. 



cicero. 493 

Cicero's Popularity. — For his important services to the 
state, Cicero was hailed by Catulus in the senate, and by 
Cato in the forum, as the 'The father of his Country.' 
Thanksgivings in his name were voted to the gods, and all 
Italy joined in enthusiastic admiration and gratitude. Cicero's 
elation knew no bounds. He fancied that his political influ- 
ence was now supreme ; he believed himself secure at the 
head of the aristocratical party, which he had saved. In this, 
he greatly erred ; that party felt no devotion for their pre- 
server. Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey, looked coldly on 
him, while the surviving friends of Catiline swore vengeance. 
In his great achievement, indeed, lay the germ of his down-, 
fall. The execution of the conspirators was a violation of a 
fundamental principle of the constitution, that no citizen 
should be put to death, until sentenced by the people in their 
comitia ; and of this violation was Cicero soon reminded. 
On the last day of the year, when, according to established 
custom, he ascended the rostra to give an account to the 
people of his consulship, the tribune elect, Metellus Celer, 
interposed. " The man," he said, "who condemned our 
fellow-citizens unheard, shall not himself be listened to," 
and he required him to confine himself to the customary 
oath that he obeyed the laws. But this attack was prema- 
ture. The audience had not yet forgotten their recent 
escape ; so that, when Cicero swore with a loud voice that 
' he had saved the republic and the city from ruin,' both 
nobles and commons with one voice responded that he had 
sworn truly. 

Cicero's Subsequent Political Career. — During his 
consulship, Cicero had welded together the two chief orders 
— the equestrian and the senatorial, and it was one of his 
great political objects to keep them united by a common 
interest in the government. This union, had it persevered, 
would doubtless have witnessed the happiest results. But 
Cicero lacked that which is first in a statesman — the quality 
of firmness ; and, when he met with opposition on the part 
of the aristocracy, he gave up his object. The two orders, 
accordingly, became soon again jealous of each other, and 
consequently as exposed as ever to the attacks of enter- 
prising demagogues. 

After the eventful period of his consulate, Cicero's politi- 
cal career was a miserable failure. His foresight, sagacity, 
practical good sense, and singular tact, were lost for want of 

42 



494 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVI. 



that strength of mind which points them steadily to one 
object, and which was at that time especially needed to adjust 
the pretensions of the rival parties in the commonwealth, to 
withstand the encroachments of Pompey, and to baffle the 
arts of Caesar. 

Cato (b. c. 95-46) as a Roman, a soldier, a public 
man. — The individual who helped Cicero the most in 
crushing the Catilinarian conspiracy, and thwarted him the 
most in his endeavor to unite the equestrian order with the 
senate, was M. Porcius Cato. Heir to the venerable name 
of the censor Cato, his great-grandfather, the younger Cato 
believed, like his ancestor, in the mission of a superior caste 
to govern the Roman commonwealth, in the right of a 
superior race to hold the world in bondage. Of singular 
strength of will and tenacity of purpose, he trained himself, 
from his early years, after the austere pattern of the ancient 
times. Inured to frugality, and of simple tastes, he rose 
above the temptations of his class to rapine and extortion. 
An enthusiastic admirer of the Stoic philosophy, he fol- 
lowed the strictest rules of integrity, being determined to 
make a stand against the corruptions of the time. 

Cato served as a volunteer during the war with Spartacus. 
Amidst the effeminacy and luxury which prevailed, he faith- 
fully observed discipline, and evinced so much spirit, cool- 
ness, and capacity, that Gellius, his general, would have 
given him the highest military rewards. These Cato 
refused, saying that he had done nothing worthy of such 
recompense. He was shortly after sent into Macedon in the 
capacity of tribune, with the command of a legion. By 
instruction and persuasion, rewards and punishments, but 
especially by exemplifying what he commanded, he suc- 
ceeded in making all his men like himself— peaceable and 
warlike, valiant and just. 

At Rome, he showed himself the open enemy of injustice, 
intrigue, and corruption. In the senate, measures for the 
support of order and morality were sure to find in him a 
powerful defender; those of a contrary nature, a formidable 
opponent. These virtues of Cato, whilst they raised his repu- 
tation, and procured him influence, were yet a bar towards 
his elevation to the consulship. Intrigues and bribery 
had now the chief share in the election of magistrates ; and 
Cato scorned to court the popular favor by such means. 
Hence, when he presented himself as a candidate, he failed to 



fe. C. 95-46. CATO. 



495 



be elected. Whilst others would have been overwhelmed by 
this discomfiture, Cato was so little concerned at the event, 
that he anointed himself that same day to play a game of 
ball, and after dinner, with his friends, walked as usual in 
the forum. 

Though Cato had not half of Cicero's abilities, yet his 
firmness and moral virtues raised him to the high station 
which the other could not keep — that of trusted leader of 
the senatorial party. But his want of tact little qualified 
him to counteract the intrigues of his wily adversaries. "No 
man," Cicero said, "means better, but he ruins our affairs; 
he speaks as a citizen of Plato's republic, not as one dwell- 
ing among the dregs of Romulus." Cato boldly opposed, 
with much personal danger, the ambitious views of Caesar and 
Pompey, each of whom sought to concentrate the whole 
power; but was unable to save the public liberty, and 
buried himself under its ruin (b. c. 46). 



CHAPTER XXVII. 
Julius Caesar. — The First Triumvirate. — Banishment and 

Recall of Cicero. 

Early Career of Julius Cesar.— C. Julius Caesar was 
born in B. C. 100. Though descended of a patrician family of 
the highest antiquity, he was, closely connected with the popu- 
lar party by the marriage of his aunt Julia with the great 
Marius ; and he himself took to wife at an early age Cornelia, 
the daughter of Cinna, the most distinguished of the Marian 
leaders. Disdaining to divorce her at the bidding of Sulla, 
he was included in the proscription list ; and it was with 
much difficulty that his friends obtained his pardon from 
the dictator, who observed ' that in him there were many 
Mariuses.' 

In fact, Caesar already looked on himself as the rightful 
heir to the leadership of the popular party ; and, justly dis- 
cerning that many causes were fast obliterating the instincts 
of freedom, and moulding the Romans to subjection to a sin- 
gle ruler, he lent at once his whole strength to what he 
deemed an inevitable revolution. He was careful, however, 



49 6 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVII. 

to hide his purpose under appearance of frivolity, and at 
first was chiefly known as a leader of fashion. But his 
genial and generous nature, his engaging manners and con- 
descension, as well as his personal beauty, gained him many 
friends. Later on, the brilliancy of his talents, the eloquence 
with which he defended his clients and impeached the nobles 
for malversation abroad, further increased the number of his 
admirers and devoted adherents. 

Cesar Courts Popularity (b. c. 68-63).— During his 
questorship, which dignity he obtained in B. c. 68, Caesar 
lost his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia. Over both of them 
he pronounced funeral orations in the forum, using this 
opportunity to praise the former leaders of the popular 
party ; and, at the funeral of his aunt, to the great delight 
of the populace, he caused the images of Marius to be 
carried in the procession. As edile (b. c. 65), he endeared 
himself still more to the people by the lavish munificence of 
his shows, but especially by causing the statue of Marius and 
the Cimbrian trophies to be restored and placed in the Capi- 
tol. Before this time, he had warmly supported the Gabinian 
and Manilian laws, in opposition to the aristocracy; and now 
he favored with his whole influence the agrarian law of Rul- 
lus (b. c. 63). Being invited to preside over a tribunal 
which inquired into cases of murder, he seized the oppor- 
tunity to brand with a legal stigma the dictatorship of Sulla, 
by condemning two obscure wretches who had been impli- 
cated in the guilt of his proscriptions. He next caused 
Rabirius, an aged senator, to be charged before him with 
the murder of Saturninus. 

Impeachment of Rabirius (b. c. 63). — Cicero, then 
consul, pleaded for Rabirius, but in vain. The accused now 
appealed to the tribes ; and, though the deed had been done 
36 years before, and Rabirius was evidently guiltless, yet 
the people would have defied all justice for the sake of a 
party triumph, had not the pretor struck the flag on the 
Janiculum, while the tribes were assembled. This ancient 
signal was still respected. The assembly was dissolved, the 
people, who had just before clamored for innocent blood, 
laughing at the trick by which their fury had been arrested. 
Caesar had shown his power, and was content to let the mat- 
ter drop. 

Cesar Chief Pontiff (b. c. 63). — The leaders of the 
people determined to reward so bold a champion by getting 



E. C. 6l. POMPEY'S TRIUMPH. 497 

him elected to the office of chief pontiff, which would ren- 
der his person inviolable. Neither the laxity of his morals, 
nor his avowed disregard for the religious traditions of the 
state, nor the exalted merit of Catulus, who competed with 
him for the dignity, were sufficient obstacles to his promo- 
tion. He was triumphantly elected. 

Profanation of Sacred Rites by Clodius (b. c. 62), 
— A few months later, P. Clodius, the profligate young 
noble whom we have seen inciting the army of Lucullus to 
insurrection, penetrated into Caesar's house in female attire, 
during the celebration of the mysteries of the Bona Dea, 
from which all males were excluded. He was detected and 
expelled. The outrage was soon made public, and the 
nobles did their best to magnify the scandal, hoping both to 
discredit Caesar and sow discord between him and the popular 
party, with whom Clodius was a great favorite. The senate 
took cognizance of the matter, and referred it to the mem- 
bers of the Pontifical College, who, with Caesar at their head 
as chief pontiff, passed a resolution that sacrilege had been 
committed. Thus Caesar's honor and office were compro- 
mised ; and, yet, he felt loath to be severe toward one who 
was an instrument of his own policy. He evaded the diffi- 
culty, by enabling Clodius to bribe his judges, and by 
divorcing his own spouse upon this plea 'that Caesar's wife 
should be beyond suspicion.' 

Pompey's Great Triumph. — Early in the year e. c. 61, 
Pompey arrived at the gates of Rome, asking a triumph for 
himself, lands for his veterans, and the ratification of his 
measures in Asia. The senate, in opposition to whom he 
had been appointed to the command against the pirates and 
Mithridates, were resolved to make him feel their displeasure. 
He was harassed with ungracious delays, and his triumph 
was not celebrated till 9 months after his return. When it 
at last took place, the display of spoils and trophies sur- 
passed all that Rome had yet seen. The tablets carried in 
the procession declared, that he had taken 1000 fortresses, 
700 towns, and 800 ships ; that he had founded 39 cities ; 
that he had raised the public revenue from 59 to 85 millions ; 
and that he had brought into the treasury 20,000 talents 
($25,000,000). With this triumph, ended the first and most 
brilliant period of Pompey's career. His place in the popu- 
lar affections, during his prolonged absence from Rome, had 
been usurped by Caesar ; and the part which he was now 



49 8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVII. 

called upon to play in the civil commotions of the republic, 
was one for which neither his natural talents nor his previous 
habits had in the least fitted him. 

Cesar's First Military Command (b. c. 61-60). — 
Secure in the affection of the people at Rome, Caesar now 
aimed at a military position such as Pompey and Sulla and 
Marius had assumed. The province of Farther Spain was 
offered to him ; but he was so deep in debt that, as he 
avowed, he wanted 250 millions of sesterces (about $10,000- 
000) to be 'worth nothing.' He was also hindered by a 
decree which forbade any magistrate to go abroad, till the 
Clodian process should be decided. The first difficulty was 
got over by the help of Crassus, who advanced $1,000,000 
for Caesar's pressing needs. The other impediment Caesar 
boldly disregarded. 

On assuming his command, he at once made war upon 
some native tribes that were still independent, ingratiating 
himself with his officers and soldiers, and filling his own 
pockets, as well as theirs, with plunder. One campaign suf- 
ficed to free him from- debt, and to reveal to him his own 
military capacity. Thereupon, in the course of the year 60, 
as the elections drew near, he threw up his command, and 
appeared suddenly before the city. He claimed a triumph; 
but his position as an imperator was not consistent with that 
of a candidate for the consulship. The nobles refused to 
relax the law in his favor, and to their surprise Caesar imme- 
diately relinquished the triumph, and sued for the consulship. 

First Triumvirate (b. c. 60). — Caesar, profiting by the 
coldness which existed between Pompey and the aristocracy, 
drew the former to himself by promising to aid him in obtain- 
ing the ratification of his acts in Asia and lands for his vet- 
erans. He also made him feel the importance of securing 
the cooperation of Crassus, who by his connections and 
immense wealth wielded great political influence. Pompey 
and Crassus, who had long been deadly enemies, were there- 
fore reconciled ; and. the three secretly entered into an agree- 
ment to divide the power among themselves. The glory of 
Pompey, the wealth of Crassus, and the popularity of Caesar, 
gave to this triumvirate, as it came afterwards to be called, 
an irresistible influence over public affairs. Through this 
new combination, Caesar was not only raised to the consul- 
ship, but enabled, during his term of office, to bring about 
whatever enactments he chose to propose. 



b. c. 59. Cesar's first consulship. 499 

Consulship of Cesar (b. c. 59). — Caesar's first consul- 
ship was distinguished by several important measures. He 
first proposed an agrarian law, which embraced an assign- 
ment of lands to the Pompeian veterans, together with the 
distribution among the poorer citizens of large public do- 
mains in Campania. To the passing of the bill the nobles 
opposed a spirited resistence. During the voting, the other 
consul, Bibulus, supported by Cato and Lucullus, advanced 
to Caesar's chair, and, on a plea of unpropitious omens, ab- 
ruptly dissolved the assembly. Thereupon the populace, 
among whom were a multitude of armed men introduced by 
Pompey, furiously attacked Bibulus, and cast him down the 
steps of the temple of Castor. Two of the tribunes were 
wounded; Lucullus was nearly killed, and Cato was 
twice dragged by main force from the rostra : thus was the 
law finally carried. Bibulus, apprehensive of fresh violence, 
shut himself up in his house, and Caesar continued to govern 
unchecked, as if he had been sole consul and absolute ruler. 

He easily obtained from the people the ratification of all 
Pompey's acts in Asia ; and, to cement their union more 
closely, gave him in marriage his only daughter, Julia. He 
next detached the knights from the aristocracy. In their 
eagerness to obtain the farming of the public taxes in Asia, 
the equites had agreed to pay too large a sum. Seeing their 
mistake, they petitioned the senate for a reduction of the bid. 
This, chiefly through Cato's opposition, was denied them. 
Caesar then carried a law, which relieved them of one third 
of the stipulated amount. Having thus gratified the people, 
the knights, and Pompey, he had no difficulty in obtaining 
for himself the Gallic provinces. This government he pre- 
ferred to all others, because he could pass the winter in Italy 
and keep up his communication with the city, while the dis- 
turbed state of Farther Gaul, now threatened by the Helvetii, 
would enable him to engage in a series of wars, and form an 
army devoted to his interests. For he already saw, that 
the struggle among the different parties at Rome must 
eventually be terminated by the sword. 

Clodius Elected Tribune (b. c. 68). — Clodius, when 
impeached for violating the mysteries of the Bona Dea, in 
defence pleaded an alibi, offering to prove that he was at 
Interamna at the very time when the crime was said to have 
been committed. But Cicero, coming forward as a witness, 
swore that he had spoken to Clodius on the day in question. 



500 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVlf. 



From that moment, Clodius vowed deadly vengeance. To 
compass it more readily, he further ingratiated himself with 
Caesar, secured even the friendship of* Pompey, and with the 
help of the triumvirs was elected tribune* for B. c. 58. 

Banishment of Cicero (Ap., 58). — Clodius, after enter- 
ing upon office, took care by various measures to con- 
firm his influence with the populace. He substituted gratui- 
tous to cheap doles of corn ; forbade the consuls to dissolve 
the comitia under pretence of observing the heavens ; and 
deprived the censors of their power of degrading knights 
and senators, at their sole discretion. He next proposed a 
bill interdicting fire and water to whosoever should have 
inflicted death on a citizen, without allowing an appeal to the 
tribes. Cicero, though not named, was clearly pointed at. 
Declining Caesar's offer of a post in his province, he descended 
ill the forum in the garb of a suppliant, soliciting the com- 
passion of all whom he met. The senators were disposed to 
stand by him. But the consuls, Piso and Gabinius, supported 
Clodius, who raised a tumult in the streets, and pelted Cicero 
and his sad cortege with mud and stones. Pompey, when 
appealed to, coldly repulsed him. Clodius convened the 
tribes outside the walls to allow the attendance of Caesar, 
who, after condemning the execution of the conspirators, 
faintly exhorted the people to forego revenge and condone 
the offence. 

Cicero had already retired from the city, but the implaca- 
ble Clodius caused him to be sentenced by name. Cicero 
was banished 400 miles from Rome, or beyond Italy. It was 
declared capital even to propose his recall. His estates were 
confiscated, his cherished villa at Tusculum given over to 
pillage, and his mansion on the Palatine pulled down, part 
of the site being cynically dedicated to the goddess Liberty, 
so as to rendei its restitution impossible. 

Riots at Rome (b. c. 57). — Clodius, blinded by his suc- 
cess, did not care to consult any longer the views of the 
triumvirs. He restored Tigranes to liberty; he publicly 
ridiculed Pompey, and perhaps even made an attempt upon 
his life. Pompev, in revenge, resolved to procure the recall 
of Cicero, and was thus brought again into some friendly rela- 
tions with the aristoCratical party. The next elections raised 

* As Clodius was a patrician, he could not sue for the tribuneship 
until he was, by means of a special law, adopted into a plebeian 
family. 



B. C. 57. RIOTS AT ROME. e i 

to power some decided friends of Cicero and resolute oppo- 
nents of Clodius. But, though the latter was no longer in 
office, he had, among the tribunes, several partisans, who 
strenuously opposed Cicero's return ; and, surrounded by a 
band of ruffians, he openly defied or attacked his opponents. 
The nobles, in self-defence, armed a party of swordsmen 
under the tribune T. Annius Milo, a man as unprincipled 
and violent as Clodius himself. For seven months, the two 
factions shed each other's blood in the sight of the affrighted 
citizens, and the streets of Rome were the scene of almost 
daily conflicts. 

Return of Cicero (Sept., b. c. 57).— At last, when the 
senate thought that the tribes could meet in safety, with the 
full approbation of Pompey they invited the voters from the 
different parts of Italy to repair to Rome, and assist in carry- 
ing a law for the recall of Cicero. Accordingly, on the 4th 
of August, the bill was passed by an overwhelming majority. 
The patriot's return was not unlike a triumphal procession. 
From Brundusium to Rome, he received deputations and 
congratulatory addresses from all the towns along the road ; 
and, when he neared the city, a vast multitude poured forth 
to meet him, while the crowd rent the air with acclamations, 
as he passed through the forum, and ascended the Capitol to 
give thanks to Jupiter (Sept. 4th, b. c. 57). But, glorious as 
was Cicero's return, he reentered Rome an altered man. By 
the unmanly dejection to which, in the hour of his trial, he had 
yielded, the weakness of his character was revealed. Feeling- 
unequal to the task of resisting the triumvirs, he lent them 
his support, and publicly praised those proceedings which 
he had once openly and loudly condemned. 



CHAPTER XXVIII. 

Caesar's Campaigns in Gaul — b. c. 58-50. 

Caesar's Object. — Csesar's government included, not 
only Illyricum and the Cisalpine, but the portion of Tran- 
salpine Gaul known as the Province, the only part of the 



5o2 



ANCIENT ROME. 



Chapt. XXVIII. 



country as yet conquered by the Romans. The rest of Gaul, 
comprised between the Pyrenees, the Atlantic, the Rhine, the 
Swiss mountains, and the Roman province, was still inde- 




pendent. The Beiges inhabited the regions north of the 
Seine ; the Aquitani, the south part of the Garonne ; and 
the Celtce, the intermediate territory. These nations, with 



B. C. 58-50. CONQUEST OF GAUL. 503 

their many tribal divisions and subdivisions, Caesar now re- 
solved to bring under the Roman sway — a work which 
occupied the next nine years. 

Caesar Beats off the Helvetii and the Suevi 
(b. c. 58). — Caesar set out for his province toward the end of 
April, in B. c. 58. During this year, he delivered Gaul from 
two invasions ; that of the Helvetii, who, to the number of 
400,000 persons, were seeking new settlements ; and that of 
the Suevi (wanderers), who under their chief Ariovistus had 
crossed the Rhine and approached Vesuntio (Besaneon). 
Having driven back these invaders, Caesar set himself to 
form alliances with some of the Gallic communities and sow 
the seed of discord among others, so as to prepare the way, 
after the Roman fashion, for the subjugation of them all. 
The ^Edui were the first to accept his alliance and protection. 

The Belgic War (b. c. 57). — Alarmed at Caesar's de- 
signs, the Belgic tribes raised an immense force to resist his 
progress. Nothing daunted by their reputation for valor, 
he marched into their territory in the spring of 57 ; entered 
the country of the Remi, who submitted at his approach ; 
and, pitching his camp in a strong position on the Aisne 
(Axona), waited till want of provisions forced the Gauls to 
break up their vast army and withdraw to their homes. Then 
resuming the offensive, he subdued in quick succession the 
Suessiones, the Bellovaci, and the Ambiani. But, when he 
came into the country of the Nervii, he was set upon by the 
natives before his entrenchments were completed, and for 
some time placed in imminent danger. At last, his genius and 
Roman discipline prevailed. The assailants were beaten off; 
and, before the end of the campaign, all the Belgae had 
made their submission. 

Subjugation of the Western Tribes (b. c. 56). — In 
the third campaign, Caesar conducted a naval war against 
the Veneti, in modern Brittany ; reduced the Morini, in the 
neighborhood of Calais , and attacked the Menapii near the 
mouths of the Scheldt and the Rhine. Meanwhile, young 
Crassus, the son of the triumvir, one of his lieutenants, con- 
quered the tribes of the southwest, in Aquitania. Thus all 
Gaul had, in three years, been overrun and apparently 
reduced to subjection. 

Invasion of Germany and Britain (b. c. 55-54). — In 
the next year, two German tribes, the Usipetes and the 



5 4 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVIII. 

Tenchtheri, pushed westward by the Suevi, crossed the 
Rhine into Gaul not far from the sea. These Caesar not only 
drove back, but followed into Germany, less perhaps with 
the intention of extending the Roman dominions, than of 
procuring the means of booty together with employment for 
his soldiers. He made a bridge across the Rhine, and took 
his army over, cavalry and all, in 10 days. Eighteen days 
he spent on the eastern side of the river, ravaging the country 
of the Sigambri, burning their villages, and cutting down 
their corn, after which he returned to Gaul, and broke down 
the bridge. There were left of the fighting season just a few 
weeks. These Caesar employed in an invasion of Britain, 
about which he desired to obtain some knowledge from per- 
sonal observation. — With a more powerful armament he 
again went thither the following year, penetrated to some 
distance into the interior of the country, defeated the Britons 
in a series of engagements, and, having imposed a tribute 
which probably was never paid, returned to Gaul with the 
satisfaction of being the first of his nation that invaded 
Britain. 

Revolt in the Northeast of Gaul (b. c. 54). — The 
fall of B. C. 54 was made memorable by the revolt of the Bel- 
gae. In consequence of the scarcity of corn — the result of 
excessive drought, Caesar was obliged to divide his forces, 
and to station his legions for the winter in different parts. 
Among the Eburones, between the Meuse and the Rhine, 
were Sabinus and Cotta with nine or ten thousand men. 
Imprudently trusting to a false report that a German army 
was coming, the legates started to join the detachment of 
Quintus Cicero, the brother of the orator, who was wintering 
among the Nervii. But, on the march, the Romans were 
cut off almost to a man by Ambiorix and his Eburones. 
The victors, without loss of time, now advanced against 
Cicero ; and, being joined by the Nervii, assaulted his camp. 
Here, however, the Romans succeeded in keeping the enemy 
at bay until the arrival of Caesar, who hastened to their relief. 
His presence checked the spirit of insurrection; yet, for 
greater security, he remained the whole winter in Gaul. 
About this time, his proconsular power was extended for a 
second period of five years. 

Cesar's Sixth Campaign (b. c. 53). — The preceding 
campaign had been prolonged far into the winter; and, 



B. C. 52-50. CONQUEST OF GAUL. 595 

before the return of spring, Caesar again took the field. He 
had received some reinforcements, and with 80,000 men 
under >his command he would teach the Gauls, who were 
learning to unite themselves for common defence, that it was 
useless to contend against Rome, His first raid was against 
the Nervii. He next went to Lutetia Parisiorum (Paris) ; 
made a peace with the Senones and Carnutes in central Gaul ; 
thence returning northward, devastated a second time the 
territory of the Menapii; and finally, crossing the Rhine 
once more, forced the Ubii to suDmit, and ravaged the 
country of the Suevi. Having thus isolated Ambiorix and 
the Eburones, he proceeded to exact condign punishment 
for the destruction of the detachment under Sabinus and 
Cotta. In his opinion, such an offence deserved nothing less 
than complete extirpation. This, with the help of certain 
Gauls and Germans, he did his best to accomplish. Yet, 
Ambiorix succeeded in eluding his pursuers. 

Central Gaul revolts under Vercingetorix. 
— During the winter of B. c. 53-52, the tribes of central 
Gaul tried in turn to shake off the Roman yoke. The 
project originated among the Carnutes, whose chief town was 
Genabum (Orleans) ; but the soul of the enterprise was Ver- 
cingetorix, a gallant young chieftain of the Arverni, who col- 
lected around his person followers of every tribe between 
Paris and the ocean. Caesar was then at the bath of Lucca 
in Italy, whence it was his custom, during the winter, to 
direct the intrigues of the capital, and, with his friends who 
flocked to him from Rome, to concert the measures most 
conducive to their common interests. On hearing of the 
movements in Gaul, though it was still winter, he hurried off 
to the scene of danger, crossed the Cevennes at a time of the 
year in which such mountains are supposed to be impassable; 
and, moving his army with wonderful quickness, took Gen- 
abum with two other cities in the centre of Gaul, thus pro- 
viding himself with food and shelter. Unwilling that Caesar 
should subsist on the provisions of his enemies, Vercingeto- 
rix sent orders to burn all the towns in those parts. The 
stern injunction was obeyed, except in the case of Avaricum 
(Bourges), the glory of the country round, which was spared 
under pretence that it could be easily defended. 

Siege of Avaricum (b. c. 52). — Great were the difficul- 
ties encountered in the siege of this place. The cattle had 

43 



5 o6 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXVIII. 

been removed from the whole neighborhood ; the corn had 
been carried off, or hidden ; from his camp near by, Vercin- 
getorix watched the besiegers, who were at times absolutely 
without food. Add to this the skill and spirit with which 
the defence was conducted. The Gauls, Caesar tells us, 
were good at mining and countermining ; they matched the 
Roman engines with their own, or rendered them harmless ; 
on the besiegers themselves they flung hot pitch and boiling 
grease; in fine, they vied with one another in daring intrepid- 
ity, assaulting the enemy day and night and in every possible 
way. Roman endurance, however, in the end prevailed. The 
inhabitants, 40,000 in number — the old, the women, and the 
children together with the warriors — were all slaughtered. 
After this terrible reverse, Vercingetorix, not daring to await 
the victorious enemy, withdrew to the strong position of 
Gergovia* among his own clansmen. 

Siege of Gergovia (b. c. 52). — Caesar with 6 legions 
followed Vercingetorix to Gergovia. Besides the fortress 
itself of Gergovia, the Gallic chieftain had fortified three 
camps- after the Roman fashion. These Caesar succeeded 
in storming, and the town itself, he tells us, nearly fell 
into his hands. Yet, as he explains it, through the rash 
courage of his men, and not by bad generalship of his own, 
he was beaten back, and had to give up the siege. A fresh 
calamity soon followed this repulse. The yEduans, taking 
courage from his recent discomfiture, not only seized or 
destroyed the stores he had left in their keeping, but joined 
their countrymen in the hope of cutting off his retreat into 
the Province. His good fortune, however, did not desert 
him. Being happily reinforced at this critical moment, he 
was able to turn upon Vercingetorix, whom he defeated with 
considerable loss. The beaten chieftain, thereupon, led his 
followers to Alesia in Burgundy. Here, on an elevated spot 
between two rivers — a position which seemed impregnable — 
he collected 70,000 warriors. But multitudes of unarmed 
fugitives also sought refuge with him, and Caesar prepared 
for another siege. 

Siege of Alesia (b. c. 52). — In an incredibly short space 
of time, Caesar surrounded the Gauls with ditches and ram- 
parts extending over a circumference of twelve miles or more. 
At the same time, he protected himself by other works of 

* Both the names of that fortress and its ruins are still extant, 
about 5 miles south of Clermont in Auvergne. 



B. C. 58-50. CONQUEST OF GAUL. 507 

still greater dimensions against an attack from without. How 
wise this precaution was, soon appeared. Before long, the 
besiegers were themselves besieged by nearly 300,000 Gauls 
of various tribes, who hastened to the relief of Alesia. But 
no efforts of theirs could prevail against Roman discipline. 
Caesar both prevented Vercingetorix from breaking through 
the lines, and entirely routed the Gallic army without. 
Alesia was, at last, compelled to surrender. Of the captives, 
20,000 ^dui and Arverni were reserved as hostages, to 
secure the fidelity of their tribesmen. The others under- 
went the ordinary fate of prisoners, and were divided as 
plunder among the troops. As to the valiant leader, Vercin- 
getorix, w r hose magnanimity had shone forth to the end, 
after being kept six years a prisoner at Rome and gracing 
his conqueror's triumph, he was put to death. 

The Pacification of Gaul (b. c. 51-50). — The victo- 
ries of the preceding year had determined the fate of Gaul. 
Many states were still in arms. But their attempts at resis- 
tance were quickly suppressed, chiefly by the rapidity of 
Caesar's movements- Nor did he hesitate, at times, to strike 
terror by those acts of cruelty so frequent in Roman warfare, 
and in which, during the preceding campaigns, he had 
already indulged more than once. Thus, at Uxellodunum, in 
the south-west of Gaul, he cut off the hands of all those who 
had borne arms against him, and turned the maimed wretches 
adrift, as a warning to their countrymen against further 
rebellion. His general policy, however, was one of concilia- 
tion. Seeing that his presence would soon be necessary in 
Italy, he was anxious to remove all cause of future wars, 
and sought to complete by mildness the work so happily 
begun by his victories. He established among the Gauls no 
military colony ; he left them their lands, and allowed to most 
of their states, together with their laws and customs, a 
specious show of freedom. The tribute required was soft- 
ened by the title of military assessment. Honors and 
privileges were showered upon the chiefs. The Gallic war- 
riors, formed into cohorts with the same equipment and under 
the same discipline as the legionaries, were admitted into the 
ranks of Caesar's army* ; nay, by a totally unprecedented 

^Indeed it was so from the first. " Caesar's conquest of Gaul." 
says Merivale, "was mainly effected by the swords of Gaulish 
soldiers." 



5 o8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXI& 

innovation, an entire legion — the Alauda* was exclusively 
composed of Gauls. By these means did Caesar secure a 
hold upon the affection of the conquered nation. 



CHAPTER XXIX. 



Expedition of Crassus against the Parthians (b. c. 54-53). 
—Anarchy in the City. 

The Triumvirs at Lucca (b. c. 55). — A misunder- 
standing having sprung up between Pompey and Crassus, 
the aristocracy began to entertain hopes of recovering their 
power. They determined to raise L. Domitius Ahenobarbus 
to the consulship, and with his help confidently expected to 
deprive Caesar of his provinces and armies. Under these 
circumstances, Caesar, in the spring of B. C 56, invited Pom- 
pey and Crassus to meet him at Lucca, reconciled them to 
each other, obtained their consent to a prolongation of his 
own command ; and, in return, agreed to secure them the 
consulship for the ensuing year, after which. Pompey was to 
have the provinces of Spain, and Crassus that of Syria. 

Second Consulship of Pompey and Crassus (b. c. 55.) 
— Domitius Ahenobarbus, supported by Cato and the aristoc- 
racy, but especially by the consul Lentulus Marcellinus, so 
stoutly opposed Pompey and Crassus, that, finding it impos- 
sible to carry their election while Marcellinus was in office, 
they availed themselves of the veto of two of the tribunes to 
prevent the consular comitia from being held this year. The 
elections, therefore, did not take place till the beginning of 
B. C 55, under the presidency of an interrex. Even then 
AJienobarbus and Cato did not relax in their opposition ; but 
they and their partisans were overpowered by violence at the 
polls. A friend of the Triumvirs, the tribune C. Trebonius, 
now brought forward two bills, one of which gave the province 
of the two Spains to Pompey and that of Syria to Crassus ; the 
other prolonged Caesar's government for five years more, 
viz., from Jan. 1, 53 to the end of the year 49 B. C. 

Crassus sets out for Syria (b. c. 54). — Filled with 

* So called from the plumes resembling a lark's {alauda) crest, 
worn in the head-piece. 



b. c. 54-53. Crassus and the parthians. 509 

the desire of eclipsing the military renown of Caesar and 
Pompey, Crassus set out for Syria. Though a war with 
Parthia, now the most powerful of eastern nations, was by no 
means included in his commission, he was determined to 
subjugate that country, and advance, through Bactria and 
India, to the farthest limits of Asia. His intentions were not 
unknown at Rome. The nobles, uneasy and jealous, by 
means of the tribune Ateius excited the religious scruples of 
the people against a scheme of unprovoked invasion. Ateius 
met Crassus at the gates on his departure, and, casting 
incense upon a burning brazier, devoted the impious aggressor 
to the infernal gods. Boih citizens and soldiers were deeply 
impressed; the expedition seemed from the first doomed to 
ill fortune. 

Crassus beyond the Euphrates (b. c. 54-53), — 
Crassus, on reaching his province, crossed the Euphrates at 
once, unopposed ; but, hesitating to proceed onward into 
Parthia, he gave the enemy time to assemble his forces. 
Himself, on the approach of winter, returned to Syria, where, 
instead of exercising his troops for the ensuing campaign, he 
plundered the temples, that of Jerusalem in particular, and 
employed his time in collecting money from every quarter. 
Meanwnile, the Parthians sent an envoy to demand whether 
his aggressions imported a declaration of war on the part of 
the republic. When he haughtily replied that he would give 
them an answer in their own capital, the Parthian smiled, 
and, pointing to the palm of his hand, declared that hair 
would sooner grow there than the Romans ever see Seleucia. 
The confidence thus felt or feigned impressed the Roman 
soldiery, who were already made anxious by reports of the 
prowess of this new enemy. Unfavorable omens were 
announced ; but Crassus heeded them not. Nor would he 
adopt the wise counsel of his ally, Artabazes, king of Armenia, 
to follow the course of the Euphrates till he reached the 
neighborhood of Seleucia— a route which would enable him 
to use his fleet for the conveyance of provisions, while the 
river itself would prevent him from being surrounded. 
Instead of this, he trusted to the guidance of an Arabian 
chieftain — in the pay of the Parthians, who promised to con- 
duct him by the shortest way to the enemy. Thus, after 
again crossing the Euphrates a second time (b. c. 53), 
Crassus was led through the treeless, sandy wastes of Meso- 
potamia, into the sterile plains to the east of Edessa, where 



510 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXIX. 

the Parthian general, Surenas, was awaiting him with a 
swarm of expert bowmen. 

Battle of Carrh,e (b. c. 53). — The Parthians, clad in 
suits of mail and mounted on swift horses, were equally 
formidable in the charge and in the retreat. Their tactics 
chiefly consisted in rapidly wheeling about, and discharging 
an incessant shower of arrows, which they hurled with the 
greatest dexterity and violence. In presence of such a foe, 
the legionaries knew nothow to act. If they continued steady 
in their ranks, they received mortal wounds ; and, if they 
advanced against the enemy, they were equally exposed. 
For the Parthians, even in their flight, kept up a continual 
discharge of their murderous missiles. Contrary to the 
opinion of Cassius, an able officer, who advised the extension 
of the Roman lines, Crassus formed his troops into a massive 
square, thus supplying a good mark to the storm of Parthian 
arrows, and ordered his son to charge at the head of a small 
force of mounted Gauls. The youth attacked gallantly; but, 
not being supported, was soon overpowered and slain. The 
signal for the retreat being given, the remnant of the legions 
staggered through the darkness back towards Carrhse, their 
last outpost. This place being judged indefensible, the 
broken army, on the following day, resumed its retreat, when 
Surenas, fearing that Crassus might after all make his escape, 
invited him to an interview. A meeting was arranged, in the 
course of which the two parties came to blows, and Crassus 
was killed. When his head was carried to the Parthian king, 
Orodes, he caused molten gold to be poured into the mouth, 
saying, " Sate thyself now with that metal, of which in life 
thou wast so greedy." In this fatal expedition, 20,000 men 
were slain and 10,000 made prisoners. 

Popularity of Caesar. — Caesar's glorious achievements 
in Gaul excited the keenest interest at Rome. His successes 
were recited in solemn decrees by the senate ; the city was 
decorated with his trophies; and the admiration of the peo- 
ple was kindled into rapture by the eulogies of Cicero, who 
exalted his triumphs above those of all the ancient impera- 
tors. " Marius," said he, " drove back the Gauls from Italy ; 
but Csesar has penetrated their fastnesses, and conquered 
them. The Alps were planted there by the gods, as a bar- 
rier against the barbarians, to shelter Rome in her infancy. 
Now let them sink, and welcome ; from the Alps to the 
ocean, she has no enemy to fear." 



B. C. 54-52. ANARCHY IN ROM£. ^H 

Jealousy of the Nobles.— Caesar's enemies had hoped 
that his strength would give way under the toils of protracted 
warfare. Instead, they heard with amazement how this 
sickly gallant was climbing mountains on foot, swimming 
rivers, riding his horse unbridled, sleeping amidst rain and 
snow in the depths of forests and morasses. The prolonga- 
tion of his command for a second period of five years, added 
to their vexation ; and Cato went so far as to propose, in the 
senate, that Caesar should be given up to the Gauls for some 
breach of faith with them. 

Pompey's Vexation. — Pompey at first smiled at his col- 
league's advancement, not supposing it possible that the 
conqueror of Mithridates could be thrown into the shade. 
But, when he heard Caesar's praises in everybody's mouth, 
and saw himself descending to the second rank, he could ill 
disguise his mortification, and he sought to regain influence 
by obtaining the dictatorship. The better to secure this 
high dignity, he either encouraged or allowed anarchy to 
prevail in the city. 

Anarchy in Rome (b. c. 54-53). — Corruption, bribery, 
and violence, had now -reached their height at Rome. 
Owing to the flagrant bribery of the candidates, no consuls 
were elected for the year 53 b. c, and an interregnum 
of six months was the consequence. At this juncture, 
Cato, in the name of his party, urged Pompey to come for- 
ward and require an election to be held. Pompey, who was 
now released from his connection with Caesar by the death of 
both Crassus and Julia, gladly responded to the invitation ; 
and, when he interposed to facilitate the election of Calvinus 
and Messala, the nobles once more hailed him as their cham- 
pion. Yet his adhesion was purely dictated by a desire 
for personal advancement ; and he was remiss in his efforts 
to restore peace to the city. Hence the difficulty of getting 
consuls duly elected, recurred ; and the year b. c. 52 also 
opened with an interregnum. 

Clodius is Slain by Milo (b. c. 52). — This time it was 
violence rather than bribery that hindered the course of the 
law. Milo, Scipio, and Hypsoeus, demanded the consulship 
with arms in their hands ; every day was marked by scenes 
of riot and bloodshed in the forum. Amidst many obscure 
murders which disgraced this period, one stands out con- 
spicuous for its disastrous consequences. It happened that. 
Milo was travelling on the Appian way, escorted, as was his 



5i2 Ancient ^oMfi. Chapt.xxix. 

wont, by a troop of armed retainers. A few miles from the 
city, he was met by Clodius, similarly attended. A quar- 
rel arose between the two parties, and Glodius, wounded in 
the struggle, took refuge in a neighboring tavern. Milo, 
giving way to his fury, attacked the house, and caused his 
enemy to be dragged forth and slain. The corpse was picked 
up by a passing friend, carried to Rome, and exposed naked 
to the populace. Their feelings, already violently excited at 
the sight, were still further inflamed by the harangues of the 
tribunes. The benches and tables of the senate-house were 
seized, to make a funeral pile for the murdered demagogue ; 
and not only the curia, but several other buildings were re- 
duced to ashes. Riotous attacks ensued upon the houses 
of Milo and the nobles. The senate had no longer any 
choice but to call in the assistance of Pompey. They there- 
fore commissioned him to collect troops, and put an end to 
the disturbances. "It is better," said Cato, "to choose a 
master, than to wait for the tyrant whom anarchy will impose 
upon us." 

Pompey Sole Consul (b. c. 52). --Pompey, who now 
saw the object of his desire within his grasp, obeyed with 
alacrity ; and, on the 25th of Feb., he was invested with 
supreme power as sole consul. He had little difficulty in 
restoring tranquillity to the city, weary of riot and blood- 
shed. But, though he had pledged himself to take Cato as 
his adviser aud rule the state in the interests of freedom, he 
was fully resolved to perpetuate his power by making him- 
self indispensable ; and he meant to be guided, as little as 
Caesar, by the views of the senatorial party. Hence one of 
his first steps was to surrender Milo, the champion of the 
senate and of those whom Cicero denominated ' the good 
men,' to the fury of the populace. 

Trial of Milo (b. c. 52). — Cicero had, for some time 
past, held aloof from the forum, where force and bribery had 
taken the place of law and justice. But gratitude now com- 
pelled him to come forward to shield one who, of all men, had 
been most instrumental in bringing about his own recall from 
banishment. In defence of Milo, therefore, Cicero prepared 
an oration, wherein he intended to congratulate the state on 
being delivered from such a ruffian as Clodius ; but, when he 
rose to address the tribunal, the fury of the people, and the 
presence of an armed force introduced by Pompey, dismayed 
him. He stammered through a short and nerveless speech, 



B. C. 53-52. ANARCHY IN THE CITY. eH 

and sat down, leaving his task half finished. Milo was 
found guilty, and banished to Massilia. Some time after- 
wards, Cicero sent him a copy of the splendid declamation 
he had purposed to deliver, whereupon Milo sarcastically 
remarked, that he thought himself lucky in that it had never 
been spoken. " Else," said he, " I should not be now enjoying 
the delicious flavor of these Massilian mullets." Before the ex- 
piration of his term, Pompey associated to himself in the 
consulship Metellus Scipio, his father-in-law. They were 
succeeded by Servus Sulpicius and M. Marcellus, the latter 
a violent aristocrat, nearly Cato's equal in hatred of Caesar. 

Cicero Proconsul in Cilicia (b. c. 51). — While Cato 
and Marcellus indulged at Rome in invectives against the 
Gallic proconsul, the distant government of Cilicia was 
offered to Cicero. The orator was unwilling to quit the 
centre of affairs. Despite the scornful neglect with which he 
was treated by the oligarchs, he clung to the hope that he 
might once again be called to interpose, and save the state a 
second time. He departed, however ; and, on reaching Cilicia, 
found that a threatened inroad of the Parthians had been 
already repelled by Cassius. He earned the title of impera- 
tor in petty warfare against the robber tribes of the hill- 
country, and flattered himself that he might be permitted to 
celebrate a triumph for this paltry success. His civil admin- 
istration was upright and moderate, in startling contrast to 
the tyranny of other proconsuls. 

Cesar's Danger. — Pompey 's accession to the senatorial 
party, emboldened Caesar's enemies to such a degree that 
they were ready to resort to the most violent measures. M. 
Claudius Marcellus, one of the consuls for 51 B. c, urged his 
recall, on the plea that the war in Gaul was finished. The 
following year, another consul, C. Marcellus, likewise moved 
in the senate that Caesar should be made to lay down his 
command at once ; and Cato declared that he would impeach 
him, so soon as he was deprived of his imperium. But a 
trial, under the circumstances, could only be a mockery ; for 
Pompey was in the neighborhood of the city at the head of 
an army, and his soldiery would, as on the trial of Milo, 
overawe the judges. 

Caesar's Demands (b. c. 50). — Caesar knew that, should 
he return to Rome in a private capacity, at the expiration of 
his command, his life would doubtless be sacrificed. 
While, therefore, his government had still upwards of another 



5i4 Ancient Rome. Chapt. xxx. 

year to run, he sought to provide for his safety. Accord- 
ingly, although absent and at the head of an army, he de- 
manded the privilege of being a candidate for the consul- 
ship, urging similar exceptions made in favor of Pompey, 
and offering even to disband his troops, provided that his 
rival, who maintained seven legions in Spain, and had others 
at the gates of Rome, would do the same. 

Measures Against Caesar (b. c. 49).— Not only were 
the proposals of Caesar rejected, but on the 1st of Jan , 49, 
the day on which the new consuls, L. Corn. Lentulusand C. 
Claudius Marcellus, entered upon their office, a motion of 
Scipio, Pompey's father-in-law, was carried, ' that Caesar 
should disband his army at once, or be treated as a public 
enemy. ' In vain two of the tribunes interposed their veto, in- 
sisting that, as Caesar's term of government was granted to him 
by the people, the senate could not lawfully abridge it. The 
senate, strong in the support of Pompey, and caring nothing 
now for constitutional rules, replied by ordering fresh levies 
of troops, and investing the consuls with dictatorial powers. 
These magistrates, thereupon, repaired to the camp of Pom- 
pey, virtually resigning their authority to him. Pompey 
had thus been forced into a position which was illegal. 
Caesar, on the contrary, was still, strictly speaking, within his 
rights. He had acquired an excuse which would be suffi- 
cient, at least with the people, for the course which he med- 
itated. Under pretence of avenging personal wrongs and 
the injuries of his country, he would repair to Rome, and 
seize the sovereign power. 



CHAPTER XXX. 



From the Beginning of the Civil War to the Death 
of caesar. — b. c 49-44. 

Pompey's Remissness and Caesar's Power. — Pompey 
all along had no apprehension as to the war. Should Caesar 
march against him — an eventuality which he deemed well- 
nigh impossible — he thought that the charm of his name 
would cause troops to flock around him, and that, ' by merely 
stamping with his foot upon the ground, he would fill Italy 



B. C. 49-44. CIVIL WAR. 515 

with his legions.' He had also been deceived as to the dis- 
position of Caesar's troops, believing that they were ready to 
desert their general at the first opportunity ; while, on the 
contrary, the power of his rival lay in the devoted attach- 
ment of his soldiers, even more than in the love of the 
people. Indeed, no captain ever knew better than Caesar 
how to win at once the respect of his troops and their per- 
sonal affection. His heroism, which made him share all 
their hardships, his care in providing for their subsistence and 
safety, his attention in bestowing merited rewards, attached 
them to his person ; while the experience they had of his trans- 
cendent abilities led them to almost blind obedience. Soldiers 
who under other generals, would have been insignificant 
troops, fought, and served under him with invincible courage 
and constancy. Among Caesar's contemporaries, it was 
remarked with admiration, that, throughout his Gallic cam- 
paigns, his troops never mutinied ; and, during the civil war, 
nothing could induce them, when captured, to turn their 
arms against him, whilst his forces were continually aug- 
mented by renegades coming from the opposite ranks. 

Caesar Crosses the Rubicon (Jan. 15TH, 49). — 
Caesar, who was spending the winter at Ravenna, no sooner 
learned the late proceedings of the senate, than he appealed 
for support to the legion he had with him. The men show- 
ing their willingness to stand by him, he sent forward a few 
cohorts to the Rubicon, the boundary of his province, some 
20 miles distant. The same evening he followed in person, 
and crossed over with a small detachment. This was in 
reality a declaration of war. Some writers state, that, on 
reaching the banks of the stream, Caesar paused, as if hesi- 
tating to take the irrevocable step, and at last exclaiming, 
"The die is cast !" plunged into the river. 

Pompey's Retreat to Brundusium. — Caesar com- 
menced operations with scarcely 6coo men, having left the 
remainder of his troops in Southern Gaul, to watch the Pom- 
peian forces in Spain, and proceed either east or west, as 
occasion might demand. His opponents in Italy, who had 
actually thrice that number, ought to have resisted his 
advance ; but they were disconcerted by so sudden an attack. 
Pompey, moreover, had no intention of sharing his victory 
with the great men of his party, and thus restoring the ascen- 
dency of the nobles. So he allowed the consternation in the 
ranks of his adherents to take its full course. Calling upon 



5i6 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXX. 

'all the good citizens ' to follow him, he set out from Rome, 
and with nearly all the senators and magistrates withdrew to 
Brundusium. 

Caesar Master of Rome and Italy. — Meanwhile 
Caesar advanced with the utmost rapidity, scarcely encoun- 
tering any opposition, and daily receiving fresh accessions of 
Pompeian soldiers into his ranks. Such indeed was the 
popularity of his cause in Italy, that city after city opened 
its gates to him, and his march was like a triumphal prog- 
ress. Learning that Pompey with the consuls had quitted 
Rome, he hastened southward in pursuit of them. He 
arrived at the gates of Brundusium in time to dispute their 
embarkation ; but, being destitute of "ships, was unable 
effectually to hinder it (March 1 7). He accordingly retraced 
his steps to Rome, having in 60 days made himself master 
of Italy. He entered the city unattended, exercised no vio- 
lence on the persons of the citizens, but merely demanded 
the treasure hoarded in the temple of Saturn beneath the 
Capitol. The gold here deposited was believed to be the 
actual ransom of the city recovered from the Gauls by 
Camillus, and was held sacred to the one purpose of repel- 
ling a Gallic invasion. The tribune Metellus forbade it to be 
seized, but Csesar pushed him aside. " The fear of a Gallic 
invasion," he said, " is forever at an end. I have subdued 
the Gauls." The more moderate of his opposers could not 
but contrast his admirable clemency with the fierceness of 
Pompey, who threatened to treat even neutrals as enemies. 

Pompey's Policy. — The rapid and ignominious flight of 
Pompey, his refusal to fight Csesar on Italian soil, his obsti- 
nate silence as to his plans, caused much disgust among the 
nobles, many of whom began to suspect some treachery in 
their leader. The ominous words often in his mouth, " Sulla 
could do this, why should not I ?" increased their apprehen- 
sion. In fact, his object was not to restore the chiefs of his party 
to power, but to grasp it for himself. " He left the city," 
says Cicero, "not because he could not defend it, not as 
driven out of it ; but this was his design from the first, to move 
land and sea, to call to arms the kings of the barbarians, to 
lead savage nations into Italy not as captives but as con- 
querors. He is determined to reign like Sulla, as a king over 
his subjects ; and many there are who applaud this atrocious 
design." 

CiESAR in Spain. — Leaving to his lieutenants the care of 



B. C. 49-44. CIVIL WAR. c x y 

securing Sicily and Sardinia to provide for the victualling of 
Rome, Caesar, after a short stay in the city, hastened to 
Spain. There his forces were far outnumbered by Pompey's. 
But such was the fame of Caesar's exploits and generosity, 
that all in a little while passed to his side. 

A Regular Government restored at Rome. — Dur- 
ing his absence, the people of Rome proclaimed him dictator. 
This dignity he retained only 1 1 days ; afterwards he was 
content with that of consul. With due solemnity all the 
other magistracies were filled, and bestowed upon his adher- 
ents. The senate, of which more than half had returned, 
again held its sessions, and issued its decrees. Rome once 
more had a regular government. Caesar, who had in cross- 
ing the Rubicon made himself a rebel, now, when legitimately 
installed as consul, appeared to be the lawful head of the 
commonwealth, while his adversaries were straightway trans- 
formed into traitors. 

Operations Against Pompey. — Having reduced all the 
enemies in his rear, and collected some transports, Caesar 
crossed the Adriatic in pursuit of Pompey (Jan. 4th, 48). 
The army of the latter was the more numerous ; but there 
were jealousies among the captains, and its commander was 
irresolute. Caesar, on the contrary, could trust every man 
in his ranks. In his first attack on Pompey, however, near 
the promontory of Petra, he was outgeneralled. But the 
elder commander knew not how to profit by his advantage ; 
and the younger merely altered his plans of operations, and 
sought a more favorable position. He found it in the plains 
of Pharsalia, in Thessaly. 

Battle of Pharsalia (August 9th,* 48). — The army 
of Pompey amounted to 40,000 legionaries and 7000 horse, 
supported by a countless host of foreign auxiliaries. Caesar had 
but 22,000 foot-soldiers and 1000 horsemen. To supply his 
deficiency in cavalry, he placed as a reserve, behind his few 
squadrons, a choice body of 3000 infantry, to support them 
when they could no longer withstand the shock of the more 
numerous horse of the enemy. On this measure and on the 
behavior of this reserve, he staked the fate of the battle. 
When, after a gallant resistance, his cavalry was forced back, 
and that of Pompey was turning his flank, the reserve stood 
up ; and, according to the previous recommendation of their 

* According to the calendar of the time; in reality, on the 6th 
of June. 

44 



5 i8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXX. 

leader, with their long pikes aimed their blows at the faces 
of their opponents. Thus unexpectedly assailed, Pompey's 
splendid horsemen, chiefly knights and senators, were 
arrested in their victorious onset, and rolled back until they 
gained the open space behind their own lines. The Pom- 
peian infantry were still holding their ground. But, being 
attacked both in front and flank by Caesars reserve, which 
had come up after the discomfiture of the horsemen, they 
soon gave way. 

Pompey Flies to Egypt (b. c. 48). — Pompey had pro- 
vided no reserve on the field, nor assigned any place for 
rallying in case of disaster. His hasty preparations to resist 
Caesar's assault upon his camp, were baffled by the precipi- 
tate flight of his routed battalions. Soon he found himself 
almost alone within his lines. Though his defeat was 
complete, he could still command immense resources. He 
therefore sailed for Egypt, where he reckoned on a friendly 
reception, as he had been the means of restoring to his king- 
dom Ptolemy Auletes, the father of the reigning monarch. 
Hither, too, he could not be pursued by an enemy destitute 
of a fleet, and so would have time to collect his friends, and 
prepare for another struggle. 

Pompey's Death (b. c. 48). — Pompey reached Pelusium 
with about 2000 men. By the will of the late king, his 
daughter Cleopatra was destined to wed her younger brother 
Ptolemy, and to reign conjointly with him under the guar- 
dianship of a council of state. Cleopatra, however, had been 
expelled from the kingdom, and was at this moment trying 
to recover her rights by force. The king's army was drawn 
up on the eastern frontier to oppose her, and the small band 
of Pompey might have secured the victory to either party. 
The royal council determined not to accept his dangerous 
alliance, but at the same time to prevent him from joining 
the other side. Under pretence of being led into the royal 
presence, he was inveigled into a boat ; his head was cut 
off, and his body cast into the surf, whence it was shortly 
washed up on the beach. His freedman recognized the 
mutilated corpse, and burned it on a rude pyre made from 
the wreck of a fishing-boat. The ashes he buried in the 
sand, and placed over them a stone, on which he traced, 
with a blackened brand, the word ' Magnus.' Such was the 
end of Pompey's career ; such were the last honors paid to 
him who had gained three triumphs over the three conti- 



B. C. 49-44. ClVlL WAR. tjl(^ 

nents of the ancient world, whose proconsulate had ex- 
tended over the east and west alternately, who might have 
demanded the dictatorship, and perhaps have seized the 
empire. 

The Alexandrine War (b. c. 48-47). — With his usual 
decision, the victor of Pharsalia hastened to improve his late 
success. Attended only by a squadron of horse and one 
legion, he hotly pursued Pompey by way of the Hellespont, 
Asia Minor, and Syria ; and, taking ship from the Syrian 
coast, reached Alexandria with 4000 men a few days after 
the death of Pompey. His entrance into the city as a Roman 
consul, at the head of his army, gave offence to the people, 
and bloody affrays took place between his men and the 
Egyptian troops. But Caesar soon got possession of the 
king's person. At the same time, he admitted Cleopatra to 
an interview, and avowed himself her lover and her cham- 
pion. The young king's advisers, trembling for their lives, 
raised the populace against the intruders. To keep open 
his retreat by sea, Caesar fired the Egyptian fleet ; and the 
conflagration, reaching the shore, involved in flames the 
great library of the Museum.* At last, the arrival of rein- 
forcements enabled him to assume the offensive. Ptolemy 
perished ; the Egyptians submitted, and Cleopatra was 
established as their queen. She afterward joined Caesar at 
Rome, and bore him a son named Caesarion. 

Caesar Defeats Pharnaces (b. c. 47). — Caesar had 
been detained three months in Egypt. In the meantime, 
Pharnaces, the son of the celebrated Mithridates, took 
advantage of the divisions of the republic to attack his 
neighbors, Deiotarus and Ariobarzanes. These princes, 
though they had been fighting on the side of Pompey, 
appealed to Calvinus, Caesar's lieutenant, for help. Calvinus 
received orders to support them, but was worsted in battle, 
and Pharnaces overran Asia Minor. In April, 47, Caesar 
quitted Alexandria, and marched in person against Phar- 
naces. This war, however, did not detain him long. One 
single battle sufficed to overthrow and destroy the power of 
the enemy. With truth could Caesar announce his victory 
to the senate, in the well-known Laconic dispatch : " Ve?ii i 
vidi, vici — I came, I saw, and I conquered." 

Battle of Thapsus (b. c. 46). — Caesar's prolonged 

* 400,000 volumes are said to have been destroyed. 



526 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXX. 

absence in the east had enabled the Pompeian leaders to 
collect, in Africa, an armament consisting- of ten legions, a 
large fleet, 120 elephants, and multitudes of Mauritanian 
light cavalry. Fortunately for Caesar, the chiefs of this vast 
force were not free from personal jealousy. Scipio, the im- 
perator, and Varus, the proconsul of the province, contended 
for the command, while Juba, king of Mauritania, their ally, 
pretended to lord it over both. Caesar, on landing in Africa, 
began at once to intrigue with the Mauritanian and Numidian 
princes. He then advanced and offered battle to Scipio, 
who shrunk from it till Juba had joined him. At length, on 
April 4th, the armies met on the field of Thapsus. Caesar's 
troops eageriy rushed to the attack; and, one after another, 
the elephants, the Numidian cavalry, and the legions of 
Scipio, gave way. Both Scipio and Juba fled from the field, 
but perished soon after. 

Death of Cato. — It was Cato's intention to make a stand 
at Utica ; but, yielding to the entreaties of the inhabitants, he 
determined to surrender the city. While most of his fol- 
lowers, at his recommendation, hastened to make their 
escape by sea, he sat down to supper with his son and some 
friends, discoursing during the repast on the highest themes 
of philosophy. He then retired to his chamber, read Plato's 
volume on the immortality of the soul, and during the night 
stabbed himself with his sword. But the wound not proving 
immediately fatal, he tore it open with his own hands, and 
died with the same dogged resolution that had marked 
every action of his life. 

Honors conferred on Caesar. — Extraordinary honors 
awaited Caesar on his arrival at Rome. The dictatorship 
was again bestowed upon him, with the unexampled privilege 
of being preceded by 72 lictors. Under the title of guardian 
of manners, he was invested for three years with the powers 
of the censorship. The right to appoint the provincial 
pretors and half of the curule magistrates, the consuls 
excepted, was also granted him. In return, he entertained 
the people with public exhibitions, banquets, and gifts, but 
took care to bestow his chief largesses upon his armed fol- 
lowers. During the course of one month, he enjoyed 4 
triumphs — over the Gauls, over Ptolemy, over Pharnaces 
and over Juba. Meanwhile, he proceeded to correct a variety 
of evils which had crept into the state, and obtained several 
enactments suitable to the altered condition of the Gommon- 



£$. C. 49-44. CIVIL WAlt. ejit 

wealth. Chief among his changes, this year, b. c. 46, was 
the reformation of the calendar. 

The Julian Calendar. — In Numa's calendar, the 12 
lunar months, occupying the period of 354 days, were the 
basis of the Roman year, which accordingly fell short by 1 1 
days and 6 hours of the true length of the solar year, or the 
period of the earth's revolution round the sun. A pretty 
accurate knowledge of the exact length of the solar year, was 
not unknown to the old Romans ; and the business of making 
their civil year agree with it, by means of proper intercala- 
tions, was entrusted to the pontiffs. But these purposely 
shrouded their, system in as much mystery as possible, often 
using it to serve political or private ends. Of late, such had 
been their neglect, willful or otherwise, that the calendar was 
now 80 days in advance of the real date. Caesar with the 
help of Sosigenes, the best astronomer of his time, remedied 
this confusion. The year B. c. 46 was made to contain 445 
days ; and, on Jan. 1st., 45, the Julian calendar came intQ 
operation, with its ordinary year of 365 days, and the addi- 
tional day in February, every leap-year, to compensate for 
the six hours left out of account in each of the intervening 
years. Caesar's calendar, though a great improvement on its 
predecessor, was not perfect. In the course of centuries, the 
error accumulated to as much as 10 days. This was cor- 
rected by Pope Gregory xin, in 1682 ;* and provision was 
made to prevent the recurrence of any such error in the 
future. 

Battle of Munda (b. c. 45). — Caesar's useful labors at 
home were interrupted by the alarming state of his affairs in 
Spain. Here the sons of Pompey, Cnaeus and Sextus, had 
gathered the remnants of their party ; and, making additional 
levies among the brave Iberians, had been able to defy 
Caesar's lieutenants, so that he found it necessary to march 
against them in person. The struggle, protracted for several 
months longer, was closed on the field of Munda, where 
Caesar, after running the greatest danger, gained at last 
a decisive victory. 

Caesar's Last Triumph (b. c. 45).— On his return to 
Rome, Caesar celebrated his fifth and last triumph. Games 
and festivals followed. At these assisted representatives of 
all the nations of the Roman world — Moors and Numidians, 

••"England adopted the- correction only in 175 1. It has not yet been 
accepted in Russia. 



522 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXX 

Gauls and Iberians, Britons and Armenians, Egyptians and 
Jews, Germans, and even Scythians. The subjects of the 
empire entered Rome in Caesar's train, and thus inaugurated 
the union of the capital with the provinces. 

Caesar becomes Supreme. — Additional honors and 
privileges were now conferred upon Caesar. He was made 
perpetual dictator, and consul for five years. He was also 
authorized to transmit to his children both the imperium, or 
military rule, and the sovereign pontificate, which had before 
been granted him only as personal distinctions. Thus did 
Caesar find himself invested with almost absolute sovereignty. 
The dictatorship and consulship, with the command 
of the public treasure, secured to him the executive power 
of the state; the imperium gave him the command of 
its forces ; the tribunate intrusted him with a veto upon its 
legislation, and rendered his person inviolable. As chief 
pontiff, he was the religious head of the people. As prin- 
ceps } or first man, of the senate, he guided the debates of the 
great council of the nation ; as censor, even the very com- 
position of that assembly greatly depended on his will. But 
lately he had raised its number to 903, and two-thirds, per- 
haps, of the members were his nominees. 

Use he made of his Power. — It is Caesar's glory, that, 
when thus raised to the height of power, his hand fell heav- 
ily on none of his fellow-citizens. The nephew of Marius 
forgot the ruins of Carthage and the marshes of Minturnae, 
and scorned to retaliate the proscriptions of Sulla. Even 
Cicero, the most humane of his own party, was amazed at 
the victor's clemency. With generous good taste, Caesar 
ordered the restoration of the statues of Sulla and Pompey to 
their places before the rostra. Towards the institutions of the 
republic he showed a similar deference. While grasping the 
substance of absolute power, he allowed the shadows of the 
old free government — the senate, the comitia, the magis- 
tracies, to remain almost unchanged. He was careful to 
assume no title inconsistent with the principles of the repub- 
lic and the precedents of its ancient or contemporary history; 
nor did he grasp at the supreme power, merely for the 
gratification of a selfish ambition. He wished to signalize 
his rule by measures of general and permanent utility. He 
gave the first impulse to the unification of the world-wide 
dominion of Rome into one national body. He set on foot 
an elaborate geographical survey of the empire. He had 



B. C. 49-44. CIVIL WAR. i-2-2 

resolved to drain the Pontine marshes, in the neighborhood 
of Rome; to open a communication between the Ionian and 
the ALgean sea, by cutting through the Isthmus of Corinth ; 
to erect moles, and build convenient harbors, along the coasts 
of Italy; to make roads over the Apennines; to dig a navi- 
gable canal from the Anio and Tiber to the sea at Terracina ; 
to rebuild Corinth and Carthage ; to erect splendid edifices 
in Rome ; to establish public libraries ; in fine, to compose 
a code of Roman law. These momentous projects, all 
worthy of his vast intelligence, time did not allow him to 
accomplish. 

Conspiracy against Cesar's Life. — On the 1st of 
January, 44, Caesar entered on his fifth consulship with Mark 
Antony for his colleague. Finding himself ill at ease in the 
city, on account of the restraints imposed upon him by 
opinion and prejudice, he had planned an expedition against 
the Parthians, and the legions were already assembling in 
Illyricum, there to await his speedy arrival. But many of 
the nobles had never forgiven his assumption of supreme 
power. Their dislike was increased by the extravagant 
honors lavished upon him, by the despotic and haughty 
manners which he occasionally assumed, and by the persist- 
ent efforts of some of his friends to force upon him the title of 
ki?ig. A plot was formed for his destruction. The con- 
spirators numbered sixty or more, and were chiefly senators 
and men under great obligations to him — Decimus Brutus, 
Casca, Cimber. Trebonius, and others. The most active of 
them, and perhaps the author of the design, was Cassius, a 
man who caredlittle for liberty or the republic, whose temper 
fluctuated between mean subserviency and rude indepen- 
dence. Through the influence of Cassius aided by that of his 
own wife and mother, Marcus Junius Brutus was prevailed 
upon to lend the authority of his name to the scheme. The 
conspirators resolved to dispatch the dictator during the 
sitting of the senate, on the Ides of March. 

Assassination of Cesar (March 15, 44). — Hints of 
impending danger reached Caesar's ear ; even the inauspi- 
cious day was brought to his notice, and he would fain have 
excused himself from attending the assembly. But his fears 
were laughed away by Decimus, and he went. He entered 
the hall, his enemies closing around him, and keeping his 
friends at a distance, Trebonius being specially charged to 
detain Antony at the door. When he had taken his seat 



524 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 

Cimber approached with a petition for his brother's pardon. 
The other conspirators joined in the supplication, grasping 
his hands and embracing his neck. Caesar put them from 
him gently, but Cimber seized his toga with both hands, and 
pulled it over his arms. Then Casca, who was behind, drew 
his dagger, and grazed his shoulder with an ill-directed 
stroke. Caesar, disengaging one hand, snatched at the hilt. 
"Help!" cried Casca, and in a moment 15 daggers were 
aimed at the victim. Caesar defended himself for an instant, 
and wounded one man with his stylus. But, when he distin- 
guished Marcus Junius in the press, the steel flashing in his 
hand also, " What ! thou too, Brutus ! " he exclaimed, let go 
his grasp of Casca, and, drawing his robe over his face, 
made no further resistance. He fell, pierced with three-and 
twenty wounds, at the foot of Pompey's statue. Julius Caesar 
was in his 56th year at the time of his death. As he did not 
commence the first of his grand military expeditions — the 
conquest of Gaul, till he was 42, he therefore performed the 
exploits which have rendered him so famous, in the brief 
space of 14 years. 

His Character. — Dean Merivale has pronounced ' Caius 
Julius Caesar the greatest name in history.' Mommsen speaks 
of him as one too great for the scope of his intelligence and 
power of delineation. That he was probably the greatest 
man of antiquity, few will be disposed to deny. His personal 
appearance was noble and commanding ; he was tall in 
stature, of a fair complexion, and with black eyes full of 
expression. A general, a statesman, a lawgiver, a jurist, an 
orator, an historian, a philologer, a mathematician, and an 
architect, he was equally fitted to excel in everything, and 
has given proofs that he would have surpassed almost all 
other men in any subject to which he devoted the energies 
of his extraordinary mind. 



CHAPTER XXXI. 



The Second Triumvirate — Battles of Philippi and Actium. 

b. c. 44-30. 

Proceedings of the Conspirators. — By the time the 



B. C. 44. THE CONSPIRATORS. 525 

bloody deed was done, the conspirators found themselves 
alone* in the hall. Senators, lictors, attendants, all had fled. 
Antony had slipped away, unobserved, to his own house. 
Great consternation fell on the citizens, who expected riot 
and massacre to follow. For, while Decimus had armed 
some gladiators for his own and his friends' defence, the 
city was filled with Caesar's veterans, and the master of the 
horse, Lepidus, with a legion was just outside the walls. 

The assassins now marched to the forum, to seek the 
public approval of their deed. They shouted that they had 
slain a king and a tyrant ; but they met with no response. 
Dismayed by this cold reception, they took refuge with their 
armed guards on the Capitol, and were joined there during 
the evening by Cicero and others of the republican party. 
Next day, Brutus descended into the forum, and tried to 
stir the populace by a speech. He was coldly listened to, 
and finally driven back to his refuge on the Capitol. 

Mark Antony's wily tactics. — Hitherto Mark Antony 
had been known chiefly for his bravery and dissipation. 
He was now about to display the arts of a perfect intriguer. 
His first care was- to secure the will and private treasures of 
Caesar. He next appropriated two million sesterces from the 
public treasury ; and, provided with these resources, made 
overtures to Lepidus, from whom he received a promise of 
support. Then, stilL disguising his intentions under an 
appearance of interest in the liberators, he opened a negoti- 
ation with them, and, on March 17th, with their consent con- 
vened the senate near the forum. The murderers, however, 
durst not leave the Capitol, and the discussion of their deed 
was carried on in their absence. 

The majority of the senate would have declared Caesar a 
tyrant. On Antony's pointing out that this course would 
have the effect of annulling all his acts and appointments, 
those who were interested in maintaining the dictator's regu- 
lations, resisted the proposal ; and, by the advice of Cicero, 
a compromise was agreed to. No judgment was pronounced 
either upon Caesar or his murderers ; but an amnesty was 
decreed, leaving the dictator's acts unchallenged, and yet 
assuring the safety of the liberators. 

Caesar's Will and Funeral.— Antony's next step was 
to make the provisions of Caesar's will publicly known. 
The dictator left as his heir his grand-nephew Octavius, a 
youth of 1 8, the son of his sister's daughter. He bequeathed 



§2§ Ancient Rome. chapt. xxxi. 

considerable legacies to his murderers. He gave his mag- 
nificent gardens beyond the Tiber to the public, and 300 
sesterces to every citizen. The knowledge of such generos- 
ity created among the people a deep sorrow for the untimely 
fate of their benefactor ; and their feelings were still further 
aroused by the ceremonies of the funeral. The body was to 
be burned in the Campus Martius ; but it was first laid in 
state in the forum. At its head hung the victim's toga, 
hacked by the assassins' daggers ; and the 23 wounds by 
which his life-blood had ebbed away, were represented on a 
wax figure visible to all. Antony, as chief magistrate, pro- 
nounced the funeral oration. He read the decrees which 
had heaped honors upon Caesar, had declared his person 
inviolable, his authority supreme, himself the father of his 
country. Then he pointed to the bleeding corpse, which 
neither laws nor oaths had shielded from outrage, and vowed 
that he would avenge the victim whom he could not save. 
The people in a frenzy of enthusiasm, insisted upon burning 
the body where it lay, in the midst of the forum. Chairs, 
tables, brushwood, were hastily piled together, and the 
body laid upon them. The temple of Castor and Pollux 
stood hard by, and it was averred that two majestic youths, 
armed with sword and javelin, were seen to apply the torch. 
As the flame rose, the veterans hurled in their arms, the 
matrons their ornaments, even the children's trinkets were 
devoted. The success of Antony was complete. 

Antony Supreme in the City. — The people, now ex- 
cited to frenzy, would have torn the murderers to pieces ; 
and, seizing burning brands from the funeral pile, they 
rushed in every direction to fire the houses of the conspira- 
tors. These attempts were repulsed ; and Antony, who still 
needed the countenance of the aristocracy, now interfered to 
stop the rioting. He also took steps to conciliate the senate : 
he passed a resolution abolishing the office of dictator ; and 
he proposed the recall of Sextus, the last survivor of the 
Pompeii. He, at the same time, communicated with the 
liberators Brutus and Cassius, who were in hiding, and 
offered them his good offices and protection. In return for 
all this, he asked one favor — the right to enlist a body-guard 
for his own protection. The senate weakly assented. In a 
short time, he had 6000 men under arms. Antony was 
now master of Rome. Being in possession of Caesar's 
papers, and having gained his secretary Faberius, he was 



B. C. 44- THE CONSPIRATORS. 527 

able to plead the authority of the dictator for anything he 
chose to do. By the sale of places and provinces, he quickly 
amassed wealth enough to purchase senators and soldiers 
and tributary sovereigns— even his own colleague, Dolabella. 
Thus supported, he deprived Brutus and Cassius of their 
promised governments, claiming Macedonia for himself, and 
giving Syria to Dolabella. "The tyrant is dead," murmured 
Cicero, ' ' but the tyranny still lives." 

Rise of Caius Octavius. — Meanwhile, a new actor 
appeared upon the stage. Young Octavius, at the time of 
his uncle's assassination, was with the legions then wait- 
ing for Caesar's arrival at Appollonia. The affection of the 
troops he had already won by his address and affability. 
So soon as he learned the tidings from Rome, he re- 
turned to the city, and boldly demanded the dictator's inher- 
itance. Most of it Antony had already squandered. But 
Octavius did not hesitate, at the sacrifice of his own fortune, 
and by borrowing large sums, to discharge Caesar's legacies 
to the people of Rome. This generosity gained their affec- 
tion. At the same time, he affected great zeal for the repub- 
lic, great respect for the senate, and great deference for 
Cicero in particular, pretending to be guided in all things by 
his advice. The veteran statesman was thus imposed upon. 
His courage revived, and he once more took an active part 
in public affairs. 

Movements of the Conspirators. — Meanwhile, Deci- 
mus had repaired to his government in the Cisalpine. Cas- 
sius, in defiance of the decree which had superseded him in 
favor of Dolabella, set out for his province. Brutus, after 
long delay, nerved himself to the task of calling the patriots 
to arms in Greece and Macedonia ; and Sextus Pompey, 
appearing with a powerful fleet on the coast of Gaul, further 
encouraged the rising hopes of the republicans. But, in the 
city and in the senate, Antony still reigned supreme. 

The First Philippic. — On September ist, the senate 
was convoked to discuss the question of enrolling Caesar's 
name among those of the Roman divinities. Antony seized 
the opportunity to attack Cicero, who was not then present, 
threatening to demolish his house on the Palatine. Next 
day, in the absence of Antony, Cicero retorted : and, after 
defending his own conduct, impeached in an eloquent invec- 
tive the administration of Antony. He denounced the con- 
sul's arbitrary exercise of power, his venality, his hypocrisy, 



528 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 



the falsehood by which he had sheltered his own unlawful 
deeds behind the pretended authority of the dead imperator. 
The senate listened with admiration, and their applause 
warmed the orator to renewed energy. 

In this, the first of Cicero's great orations against Antony 
known as the Philippics,* he confined himself to denouncing 
the policy of his enemy, and left his personal habits untouched. 
A few days later Antony replied, accusing Cicero of the 
murder of the Catilinarians, the assassination of Clodius, the 
rupture between Caesar and Pompey, and denouncing him 
to the legions as the secret contriver of their hero's death. 
Cicero prudently kept out of the way of the armed guards 
of Antony, and remained at his villa, near Naples, until his 
enemy's departure from Rome. 

Octavius Raises Troops. — All this time, Octavius was 
silently undermining Antony's position. By promises and 
largesses, his emissaries had already enlisted a considerable 
number of troops in various parts of Italy. Besides 10,000 
men thus collected in Campania, Umbria, and the Cisalpine, 
he gained over two legions that had just arrived from Epirus. 
But, as he needed the sanction of the senate to give legality 
to his conduct in thus raising troops of his own authority, he 
made it his chief object now to gain that body through 
Cicero, plying the great orator with compliments and caresses, 
calling him his father, and promising docility and obedience. 

The Second Philippic- — Antony now began to find his 
position at Rome less secure ; and, in the fall of 44, he with- 
drew to the Cisalpine, to assemble there all the legions on 
whose loyalty he might still rely in his contest with the re- 
publicans. Cicero, meanwhile, was working with feverish 
anxiety to unite all parties against the tyrant. He exhorted 
Decimus ; he caressed Octavius ; he encouraged Brutus and 
Cassius, Trebonius and Cimber. Then, too, it was that lie 
published his Second Philippic, one of the most violent in- 
vectives ever written. It branded Caesar as a tyrant, Antony 
as a monster. Its effect was electrical. Both people and 
senate were emboldened to defy the usurper ; and the con- 
suls elect, A. Hirtius and C. Vibius Pansa, were confirmed 
in their loyalty to the republic. 

Cicero's Proud Position at Rome. — Antony was 
declared a public enemy; and, in the conduct of the war 

* In allusion to the harangues of Demosthenes against Philip of 
Macedon. 



B. C. 44-43. THE CONSPIRATORS. 529 

against him, young Octavius was to be associated with the 
consuls. Cicero was now at the height of his glory. His 
activity was unceasing, and in the twelve remaining ' Philip- 
pics ' he encouraged the senate and the people to prosecute 
the war with vigor. His eloquent harangues inspired all 
with confidence and devotion. He filled the treasury with 
voluntary contributions from the loyal, and fines levied on 
the disaffected. He maintained an active correspondence 
with the chiefs in the provinces, assuring each in turn of the 
constancy of all the others, and inspiriting them by glowing- 
accounts of the strength and resources of the party. Though 
without an office, he was allowed, as if by common consent, 
to take the helm of affairs. 

Battle of Mutina (April 27, b. c. 43). — Since the end 
of Nov., 44, Antony had been besieging Decimus Brutus 
in Mutina {Modenct). Against him Hirtius went with Octa- 
vius in the Jan. of 43, while Pansa remained in the city to levy 
more troops. For some weeks, no movement of importance 
took place in either army. But, when Pansa set out to join 
the republican forces, Antony suddenly quitted his lines, 
and, falling upon this fresh adversary, defeated and mortally 
wounded him. Hirtius, however, saved the beaten force 
from utter rout; and, a few days later, in conjunction with 
Octavius, inflicted a severe defeat on Antony, before Mutina. 
But he, too, perished in the conflict, and thus both consuls 
we're removed. The senate and people at Rome, overjoyed 
by the victory, carried Cicero in triumph to the Capitol, and 
saluted him as the true victor of Mutina. The contest 
seemed to be at an end. Decimus was pursuing Antony ; 
Plancus was advancing to block the passes into Gaul : Brutus 
and Cassius in the east, and Sextus on the sea, all sent 
tidings of success. 

Octavius seizes the Consulship (Sept. 22). — Elated 
by such favorable news, the senate began to show coldness 
towards Octavius. This was the pretext he wanted to un- 
mask himself. He let Antony know that he had no wish to 
crush him, and stood aside to allow him to effect a junction 
with Lepidus in the Transalpine. Plancus terminated his 
long indecision by casting in his lot with the stronger party, 
and thus Antony found himself at the head of 23 legions. 
The senate had thought to use Octavius as their tool, and 
then to cast him aside. To prevent him from obtaining any 
farther power, they gave the command of the consular armies 

45 



530 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 

to D. Brutus ; and Cicero talked of removing the ' boy.' But 
the ' boy ' soon showed the senate that he was their master. 
He had asked for the consulship, and his request had been 
refused. He now crossed the Rubicon at the head of eight 
legions, and marched on Rome to seize the prize by force. 
Some feeble attempts at defence were made; but, one after 
another, the senators and consulars slipped through the gates, 
and went over to the intruder's camp. Cicero, alarmed for 
his safety, made his escape. On September 22nd, the peo- 
ple elected Octavius to the consulship. Next day, the 
audacious stripling completed his twentieth year. The first 
act of the new consul was to summon the murderers of Caesar 
before his tribunal. Judgment was passed against them by 
default, and they were interdicted fire and water. 

Second Triumvirate (b. c. 43). — Octavius, now consul of 
the republic and leader of a numerous army, was in a position 
to make terms with Antony on a footing of equality. Placed 
between two such powers, and abandoned by Plancus, Decimus 
was lost. His troops deserted from him wholesale. He 
tried to escape into Macedonia, but was captured and put to 
death. Toward the end of October, Antony, Lepidus, and 
Octavius, met near Bononia ; and, under the title of* triumvirs 
for settling the affairs of the republic,' * the three leaders 
divided the whole power among themselves. The blood of 
their chief adversaries — 200 or 300 senators, and perhaps 
2000 knights, including friends and relatives of the triumvirs, 
whom they sacrificed to one another— cemented tnis union. 

Murder of Cicero — His Character. — Of all the vic- 
tims of this proscription, the most distinguished was Cicero. 
He had retired to one of his villas, on a little island off the 
coast, whence he proposed to embark for Macedonia. 
Though warned of the approach of the assassins, he delayed 
to depart. ** Let me die," he would say, " in my fatherland, 
which I have so often saved ! " His servants at length pre- 
vailing upon him, he was hurried in a litter, and carried 
towards the coast. But it was not long before his pursuers 
overtook him. His party was the larger, and ready to de- 
fend him. Heforbade all resistance, had the litter laid down, 
and with his eyes steadfastly fixed on his murderers offered his 
throat to'the sword. His head was carried to Antony, and 
by him set up in front of the rostra. Fulvia, it is said, 

* Triumviri reipubliccs constituendce. 



B. C. 43-30. SECOND TRIUMVIRATE. 53I 

pierced the tongue with a needle, in revenge for his sarcasms 
against both her husbands — the late notorious Clodius and 
Antony. Thus died Cicero, in his 64th year. In the midst 
of the corruption of the age, his life was relatively pure. He 
was an affectionate father, a faithful friend, and a kind mas- 
ter. As an orator and a writer, his extraordinary talents 
went on developing until his untimely death. For the finish 
and beauty of his orations, rhetorical works, letters, and 
philosophical treatises, he may be regarded as the greatest 
master of composition that the world has seen. 

Battle of Philippi (b. c. 42). — While the triumvirs 
were consolidating their power in the west, Brutus and Cas-^ 
sius, having rallied large remnants of the Pompeian legions 
in the east, with a well-appointed army began their march 
towards Italy. Antony and Octavius with forces still more 
numerous, but not so well supplied, encountered the two 
pretors near Philippi, in Macedonia. A fierce conflict ensued, 
in which one half of each army was victorious, and the other 
half routed, Brutus having broken the line of Octavius, 
Antony that commanded by Cassius. Deeming all lost, Cassius 
slew himself in despair. His death was fatal to his party. 
Brutus lacked the energy to control the restless legions ; and, 
when a few days after, they forced him to resume the battle 
of Philippi, being defeated, he, as his colleague had done, 
killed himself on the spot. With them died the hope of re- 
storing the commonwealth. 

Horace at Philippi. — The Greeks took little interest in 
the political struggles of their Roman masters, though they 
had a traditional preference for republican forms. Athens,' 
at this time, was a sort of university, frequented by aspiring 
youths of every nation. Among these was the genial sati- 
rist and poet, Horace. Brutus, on presenting himself at 
Athens as pretor of the province, had met with a hearty 
reception and ready support; and, in the army which he 
proceeded to organize, many Roman students received com- 
missions. Among them the youthful Horace was made 
tribune, in which capacity he fought at Philippi, but did not, 
if we may believe his own account, display much courage. 
He nevertheless forfeited his estate ; but, through the patron- 
age of Maecenas who appreciated his poetic talent, was 
afterwards abundantly repaid for whatever he had lost. 

Agrippa and Maecenas, Messala and Pollio. — After 
the battle of Philippi, Antony chose to remain in the east, 



532 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 



where he could more freely indulge his sensual and dissolute 
inclinations. Octavius returned to Italy, to give the veterans 
the lands which had been promised them. At Rome, the 
centre of the empire, he began with the help of Agrippa and 
Maecenas to lay deep the foundation of a durable government. 
Whilst Agrippa successfully fought the battles of the young 
triumvir by sea and by land, Maecenas, a wise and sagacious 
statesman, by his industry, his genial temper, his choice of 
friends, did much to reconcile men to the new administration. 
From Messala and Pollio, persons of eminent talents and 
devoted to him, Octavius also derived much assistance. 

Sextus Pompey's Maritime Power. — Sextus, the son 
of Pompey, after the battle of Munda, succeeded in collect- 
ing a numerous fleet, with which he made himself master of 
Sicily, Sardinia, and all the seas between Africa and Italy. 
As he had it in his power to intercept the ships which sup- 
plied the city with corn, Antony and Octavius found it nec- 
essary, in B. C. 39, to enter into negotiations with him. 
Besides confirming him in possession of Sicily, Sardinia, 
and Corsica, they promised him Achaia also. As, however, 
the surrender of this province was delayed, Pompey recom- 
menced his piratical excursions; and, difficulties occurring 
between Antony and Octavius, he manifested a disposition 
to side with the former. Hence, for Octavius it became a 
necessity to reduce this new rival. 

Agrippa Crushes Sextus Pompey (b. c. 36). — The 
first operations of Octavius against Sextus were most disas- 
trous. His fleet was twice defeated by Pompey, and at last 
completely destroyed by a storm (b. c. 38). This only 
proved the necessity of making more extensive preparations. 
They were entrusted to Agrippa, who was consul for the 
year 37 B. C. Nearly two years were employed in building 
a new fleet, and exercising crews and oarsmen. The con- 
sul, wishing to obtain a perfectly secure harbor for his navy, 
constructed the celebrated Portus Julius, on the coast of 
Campania, near Baiae, by uniting the lakes Avernus and 
Lucrinus and admitting the waters of the sea to them. Here 
he prepared his galleys, exercised his seamen, and drilled 
the legionaries who were to fight on board the fleet. By 
these means, the war, which began with disasters, ended with 
triumphs. Sextus was crushed, and soon after perished. 

Disgrace of Lepidus (b. c. 36). — Dissatisfied with his 
inferior position in the triumvirate, Lepidus claimed both 



fi. C. 36-34. OCTAVIUS AND ANTON*?. 533 

Sicily and an equal share with his colleagues in the govern- 
ment. Octavius, who had just triumphed over Pompey, 
now turned upon the imprudent Lepidus, who was quickly 
overcome, and forced to throw himself upon the mercy of 
the victor. He was deprived of his command, and sent into 
banishment ; but was allowed to retain his property and the 
high-priesthood. 

Antony in Parthia. — Antony's lieutenant, Ventidius, a 
general formed in the school of the great Caesar, had lately 
gained over the Parthians signal advantages, for which a 
well-merited triumph was awarded to him. By this the 
jealousy of Antony was awakened. He therefore assembled 
(b. c. 36) a large army on the Euphrates, with the avowed 
intention of completing the successes begun by his lieutenant. 
But he advanced too far; and, in his hurry, left behind 
him his military engines insufficiently protected, The Par- 
thians, by a bold and skillful attack, destroyed them together 
with their escort of about 10,000 men. This accident, the 
severity of the weather, and the defection of the king of 
Armenia, compelled a retreat. The retrograde march, it is 
true, was well conducted, the Parthians being repulsed 18 
times. But the loss of the Romans was appalling, though 
Antony chose to represent the campaign as a success, and in 
Cleopatra's company returned unabashed to Alexandria. 

Octavia. — Upon the death of Fulvia in 40 B. c, Antony 
had married Octavia, the sister of Octavius and widow of C. 
Marcellus, one of the noblest women of the age, whose charms 
and virtues made him for a time forget the fascinations of the 
Egyptian queen. Hearing that her husband's mad love for 
Cleopatra again possessed him, Octavia determined to make 
an effort to win him from this fatal influence. In B. c. 35, 
she set out for the east, carrying with her magnificent 
presents, clothing for his soldiers, beasts of burden, money, 
equipments, and a body-guard of 2000 picked men splen- 
didly arrayed. At Athens, however, she received a com- 
mand to advance no farther, and she had no choice but to 
return with dignity to Rome. 

Antony and Cleopatra, at Alexandria. — In the 
following year (b. c. 34), Antony made an inroad into Arme- 
nia, carried off king Artavasdes to Alexandria, and, to the 
disgust of the Romans, celebrated a triumph in his foreign 
capital. The Egyptian court now plunged into the grossest 
debauchery, the queen leading the way, and contriving a 



534 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 



succession of new pleasures for the Roman voluptuary. All 
her talents, which were of the most varied kind, were called 
into requisition, as well as the lighter artifices of her sexi 
Painters and sculptors grouped the illustrious pair together, 
and the coins of the kingdom bore the effigies and titles of 
both. Masques and revels followed in quick succession, and 
the princely lovers assumed the characters of Isis and Osiris. 
To her hereditary dominions Antony added Phoenicia, 
Ccelesyria, Cyprus, a large part of Cilicia, Palestine, and 
Arabia; and he publicly recognized the children she had 
borne him. 

Octavius at Rome. — Antony's conduct caused much 
resentment at Rome, where Octavius, daily advancing in 
popularity, was beginning to fill the space left vacant by 
Caesar's death. After the reduction of Sextus and the defeat 
of Lepidus, he had encountered with success some of the 
rudest tribes among the Alpine passes, in Dalmatia, Illyria, 
and the remote Pannonia. In addition to the military glory 
thus achieved, he won the affection of the soldiers by shar- 
ing their dangers and hardships. At Rome, while engaged 
upon the enterprise of raising himself above the laws, he 
took no step, however daring, without trying to secure for it 
the semblance of legality. He was careful to render an 
account of all his acts to the people ; he restored their 
ancient perogatives to the magistracies ; he made life and 
property secure, in Rome, by the institution of city guards,* 
and through the peninsula by that of an active police, which 
scoured it from end to end. This wise administration, due 
chiefly to Maecenas, reconciled many enmities ; many also 
were softened by the personal affability of Octavius, his 
gracious manners, and his unwearied concern for the public 
weal. 

Antony's Warlike Preparations (b. c. 33-32). — In 
the course of the year 33, Octavius and Antony entered upon 
angry recriminations, the latter objecting that he had not 
received his share of troops and provinces on the depriva- 
tion of Lepidus, while his rival retorted by charging him 
with the murder of Sextus Pompey, the capture of Arta- 
vasdes, an ally of the republic, above all, with his scanda- 
lous connection with Cleopatra. Antony, who had been pre- 
paring an expedition against the Parthians, suddenly changed 

* Vigiles, 700 in number. 



B. C. 32-31. OCTAVIUS AND ANTONY. 535 

the destination of his legions to Ephesus. Thither his offi- 
cers were directed to bring fresh battalions, levied through- 
out Greece, Africa, and Asia. Thither, too, he summoned 
the barbarian chiefs, from the Caspian • to the Syrtis, to 
assemble with their hosts of auxiliaries. Cleopatra con- 
tributed not only a contingent of troops, but a squadron 
of the most powerful galleys ever launched upon the Medi- 
terranean. The object of all these preparations was not 
avowed. Antony pretended to be absorbed in frivolities. 
He passed the winter at Samos, lavishing his resources upon 
a splendid Dionysian festival; and the new Bacchus 
repeated his former extravagances, while the empire of the 
world was trembling in the balance. 

War against Cleopatra (b. c. 31). — Octavius had 
been long preparing for the conflict, which he^knewtobe 
unavoidable. But, to prevent the contest which was now at 
hand, from degenerating into a personal quarrel, and the bet- 
ter to appear as the true champion of Rome, he refrained 
from denouncing Antony as a public enemy. The war was 
declared by the senate, not against him, but against Cleo- 
patra, who held him in bondage; and Octavius, as 
consul of the republic for the year 31, proceeded to carry 
on war against the Egyptian queen. 

Forces of the Belligerents. — Antony had collected 
100,000 foot and 12,000 horse, besides a large number of 
auxiliaries, many of whom were led by their native sovereigns. 
His fleet counted 500 war-galleys, 60 of which belonged to 
Cleopatra, and were commanded by herself. Octavius had 
20,000 infantry less than his rival; the difference in the number 
and size of his vessels was still greater. But that inferiority 
was compensated by the skill of Agrippa, the devotedness 
of the troops, and the confidence which all reposed in their 
officers, 

Battle of Actium (Sept. 2, b. c. 31). — The hostile 
fleets and armies assembled on the western coast of Greece, 
and gradually concentrated in front of each other. Antony's 
ships were anchored in the gulf of Ambracia, and his army 
was encamped near by on the promontory of Actium, which 
has given its name to the battle. From the opposite coast 
of Epirus, and separated from him only by a narrow channel, 
Octavius at the head of the land-forces observed his oppo- 
nent, whilst Agrippa with his well-appointed fleet was on 
the watch in the vicinity. Already two slight actions had 



536 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXI. 



taken place, one on land and the other at sea, in both of 
which Antony was worsted. Defection had commenced in 
his ranks. The position of his camp was confined and un- 
healthy ; and the superiority which the enemy had acquired 
at sea, threatened his supplies. Antony would have removed 
the theatre of war to the plains of Thessaly. But Cleopatra, 
who feared to have her retreat cut off, dissuaded him from 
this. To please her, he resolved to sacrifice the army, and 
retire with the fleet to Egypt. Agrippa, however, would not 
allow him to escape, and no sooner had Antony emerged 
into the open waters of the Leucadian Bay, than he was com- 
pelled to fight. The battle was still undecided when Cleo- 
patra, whose vessels were at anchor in the rear, taking 
advantage of a favorable breeze, sailed through the midst of 
the combatants with her whole squadron, and made for the 
coast of Peloponnesus. Antony, observing her flight, 
hastened in her wake. Many of his adherents, enraged at 
this dastardly conduct, imitated his example, and withdrew 
from the action ; yet most of them continued the contest till 
their vessels, now burned to the water's edge, sank slowly 
into the sea. A few days after the destruction of the fleet, 
the land-army surrendered to the conqueror. 

Octavius Quells a Mutiny (b. c. 30). — Octavius did 
not follow Antony to Alexandria for nearly 12 months after 
the battle of Actium, Maecenas had been left to govern 
Rome, and Agrippa with the veterans was now dispatched 
to pacify Italy, which was still disturbed, while Octavius 
visited Greece, and received a glad welcome from its people. 
Thence he passed on to Asia, where provinces and depend- 
ent kingdoms promptly submitted to him. But, during the 
winter, the veteran troops in Italy, whose demands Agrippa 
was unable to satisfy, broke into open mutiny. Octavius 
hastened to Brundusium ; and, selling his own property and 
that of his nearest friends, raised enough money to calm their 
discontent. Then, promising an additional largess out of 
the spoils of Egypt, he started in the spring to complete his 
victory over the fugitives. 

Antony's Suicide. — The news of Antony's defeat at 
Actium, had preceded him to Egypt. On his arrival there, 
he found his authority renounced by the Roman legions, and 
gave himself up to despair. But Cleopatra with more spirit 
prepared to defend herself. As, however, her allies fell 
away from her one after another, she conceived the idea of 



B. C. 30. DEATH OF ANTONY AND CLEOPATRA. 537 

fleeing with her treasures to Arabia. Some of her ships 
were even dragged across the isthmus of Suez to the Red Sea, 
but were there destroyed by the Arabs. The project had to 
be abandoned, as was also the still wilder scheme of taking 
flight to Spain, and raising that turbulent province against the 
heir of Caesar. Meanwhile, both Antony and Cleopatra 
separately pleaded for mercy. The former received no reply ; 
the latter was encouraged to hope for favor, if she would rid 
the world of Antony. Octavius wished to exhibit her alive 
at his triumph, and he was anxious to possess himself of the 
treasures of the Ptolemies, which she had it in her power to 
secrete or destroy. His agents suggested to her that Octavius 
was young, and might yield to the power of her charms. In the 
hope of a last conquest, she determined to betray her para- 
mour. As the conqueror approached, Antony, encouraged 
by some success in a cavalry skirmish, prepared to strike a 
last blow for empire ; but, at that moment, both his navy 
and his troops, seduced by the queen's artifices, deserted 
him. He was at the same time falsely informed that she 
had committed suicide. Therefore losing all hope, he 
inflicted upon himself a mortal wound. 

Death of Cleopatra. — Cleopatra, learning that Octa- 
vius proposed to visit her, resolved to bend all her arts towards 
exciting his compassion and love. Against these efforts 
Octavius sternly fortified himself. He fixed his eyes coldly 
on the ground, asked for a list of her treasures, and, bidding 
her be of good courage, quitted her. Cleopatra was dis- 
mayed at her failure. Unwilling to be removed to Rome, 
she made up her mind to die, and was next day found dead, 
near the body of Antony, in the tower of her mausoleum. It 
was the popular belief that she perished by the bite of an 
asp, conveyed to her for the purpose in a basket of figs. 
With her, the dynasty of the Ptolemies ceased to L reign ; 
Egypt was thenceforth reckoned a Roman province. 



CHAPTER XXXII. 
The Roman Empire under Augustus.— b. c. 29-A. d. 14. 
Octavius becomes Emperor (b. c. 29). — The battle of 



538 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXII. 

Actium was the conclusion of the grand drama which 
changed the Roman republic into the empire. Although 
Octavius did not assume the title of sovereign, he concen- 
trated the ruling power in himself, and so retained and 
exercised it during a long life, as to transmit it without 
opposition to the members of his family. With what con- 
summate prudence he gradually reconciled the Romans to the 
change, will be presently seen. 

It was as consul that Octavius had gained the battle of 
Actium, and subjugated Egypt On his return to Rome, he 
enjoyed a triple triumph — for his victories over the Illyrians, 
over the Egyptians at Actium, and over Cleopatra at Alex- 
andria. With the ceremony of the triumph, his imperium 
became extinct, and he ought thereupon to have disbanded 
his army. This, with great show of moderation, he pro- 
fessed himself ready to do, but allowed the senate to confer 
upon him the title of itnperator, whereby he became perma- 
nent commander of the national forces. Henceforth, he was 
permitted to prefix the word imperator, or emperor , to 
his name. 

His Conservative Policy. — Octavius, now reversing 
Caesar's policy, as well as that hitherto followed by himself, 
restored to the senate, at least in appearance, its ancient 
prerogatives. Rejecting unworthy members from that body, 
he reduced it to the legitimate number of 600, and strictly 
required a qualification of property of about $50,000. Then, 
he placed himself at its head, as princeps y a republican title, 
long regarded as the highest of all honorary distinctions. 
Nor was it only thus that Octavius reconciled the nobles to 
his rule. He showed himself, in every particular, devoted 
to their interests. His policy, in most points conservative 
and reactionary, tallied perfectly with the ideas and prejudices 
of the aristocracy. He preserved the ancient laws with as 
little change as possible. He studiously exhibited himself 
as the champion of the national worship. He insisted on 
maintaining the superior character and privileges of the 
Romans, to the exclusion of all provincials and foreigners. 
He upheld the Whole framework of the republican govern- 
ment, and seemed jealous to maintain it against the sug- 
gestions of a senate all too prone to flatter and caress him. 

How he Conciliates the Populace. — While he con- 
ciliated the great by his studied conservatism and respect 
for ancient laws, Octavius adroitly appeared no less bound 



B. C. 29-A. t>. 14. AUGUSTUS. 539 

to the popular party, which had raised him to power. The 
populace still persisted in regarding the tribuneship as the 
legitimate guardian of their privileges. Octavius, therefore, 
although invested with a perpetual tribunate, took care to 
have his tribunitian powers renewed every year, and thus 
led the people readily to believe him a champion of their 
liberties. But his shows and largesses, and relief from mili- 
tary service, proved the strongest ties that bound the 
lower classes. — Octavius reduced from 320,000 to 200,000 
the number of the inhabitants of Rome who were main- 
tained by the free distribution of corn; but he provided for 
many poor citizens, by settling them in new colonies. 

Octavius receives the name of Augustus (b. c. 27). 
— The prosperity which the return of peace and the wise gov- 
ernment of Octavius brought to the country, made the 
admirers of the new ruler desirous of showing their grati- 
tude by some title, which, offending none, would exalt him 
before all. The epithet Augustus, that is, ' the sacred, the 
venerable/ answered this purpose. Hitherto applied chiefly 
to the gods and public worship, it flung a sort of aureola about 
the bearer's brow. Henceforth the worship of Octavius asa 
god, though forbidden in Italy, began to spread tacitly in 
the provinces. On the death of Lepidus, B. C. 13, Augustus 
succeeded him as chief pontiff. 

Augustus receives the title of Father of his 
Country. — This title, the proudest any Roman could obtain, 
had long been bestowed by the popular voice on Octavius, 
when with one accord the senate resolved to confer it upon him 
with due solemnity, in the name of all the citizens. " Conscript 
fathers," said the emperor in his reply, "my wishes are now 
fulfilled, my vows are accomplished. I have nothing more 
to ask of the Immortals, but that I may retain to my dying 
day the unanimous approval you now bestow upon me." 

Simplicity of the Emperor's Habits. — Augustus was 
careful to veil the supreme power which he really wielded, 
under the greatest show of simplicity. He affected to appear on 
all occasions, not in the attitude of a ruler of Rome, but as the 
first of her citizens. In private life, he was studiously sim- 
ple and modest. His house on the Palatine was moderate 
in size and ornaments. His dress was that of a plain sena- 
tor, woven by the hands of Livia and her maidens. He 
traversed the streets as a private citizen, with no more than 
the ordinary retinue of slaves and clients, courteously 



54° 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXII. 



addressing the acquaintances he met, allowing himself to be 
summoned as a witness in their suits, and attending at their 
houses on occasions of domestic interest. Nor did he show 
himself affable only to persons of distinction. He received 
with kindness the petitions of all, encouraging those who 
were timid and bashful. At table, he was temperate. 
Though his personal conduct was not blameless, he applied 
himself to the repression of licentiousness, which he con- 
sidered one of the greatest evils of the state. 

Augustus a Patron of Letters. — Augustus was a 
tolerable writer, and capable of distinguishing literary merit. 
Most of his chosen friends were men of letters ; and his fame 
with posterity rests, in a great degree, upon that circle of poets, 
historians, and eminent scholars by whom he was surrounded. 
Preeminent among them stand forth the poets Virgil and Hor- 
ace, Tibullus and Ovid, together with the matchless prose 
writer — Livy. Of these authors a short sketch will be given, 
in a chapter on Roman literature, at the end of this work. 

Clemency of Augustus.' — Though the rule of Augustus 
bore lightly on the citizens, and the lassitude engendered by 
a hundred years of civil war had reconciled the few genuine 
Romans to his sway, he was not secure from conspiracies. 
He showed himself inexorable in the punishment of the first 
offenders, Ignatius Rufus, Murena, and Cepion. But in the 
case of Cinna, a grandson of Pompey, by the advice of the 
empress Livia, he resolved to try the effect of clemency. 
Sending for the chief conspirator, he named to him all his 
accomplices, together with the manner, time, and place fixed 
upon for the execution of the foul deed. Cinna was thunder- 
struck ; but greater yet was his surprise, when Augustus, after 
enumerating the benefits he had conferred upon him, added, 
" Cinna, I forgave you once, when you were found in the 
camp of my enemies ; I now pardon you a second time, after 
you have attempted to be my murderer. Let us become 
sincere friends ; and, by our future conduct towards each 
other, make it doubtful which is greater, my generosity or 
your gratitude. " Many are the instances related of his 
moderation and clemency towards offenders. 

The Imperial and the Senatorial Provinces. — 
Italy, under which name Cisalpine Gaul is henceforth included, 
was divided into eleven regions, and governed by the pretor 
in the city. The rest of the empire was apportioned between 
the emperor and the senate. To the latter were assigned 



B. C. 29-A, D. 14. AUGUSTUS. 54 1 

the great islands off the coasts of Italy, and such regions as 
were peaceful and less exposed to foreign aggression. The 
emperor reserved to himself those provinces in which large 
armies were maintained for the repression of turbulent sub- 
jects or aggressive enemies. The imperial governors bore 
the various designations of lieutenants of Caesar, procurators, 
presidents, or prefects. 

The Imperial Legions. — The standing army of the 
empire consisted of 25 legions with the usual auxiliary troops 
—in all, some 340,000 men — stationed thus : 3 legions in 
Spain, 8 on the banks of the Rhine, 2 in Africa, 2 in Egypt, 
4 on the Euphrates, 4 on the Danube, and 2 in Dalrrfatta. 
Each of these legions mustered 6100 foot and 720 horse, 
recruited mostly among the subject races. All the legion- 
aries were now armed and equipped alike. Instead of the 
old arrangement in 3 or 5 lines, the arrayed legion had but 
2 ; each of these were divided into 5 cohorts, and the veter- 
ans occupied the front rank. The local auxiliaries attached 
to the legions, were armed and drilled after their native usage. 

The Imperial Navy. — Augustus was the first to estab- 
lish a regular and permanent navy, which he stationed under 
the supreme command of Agrippa, at Misenum, Ravenna, 
and Forum Julii (Frejus) in Gaul. These fleets kept the 
pirates in check, secured the free transmission of grain to the 
capital, and convoyed the ships which brought tribute in 
money from the east and west. 

The Pretorian Guard. — The pretorian guard, which 
Augustus provided for his own protection, as well as for the 
defence of Italy and Rome, consisted of 10 cohorts, each 
containing 800 or 1000 men recruited from among the citi- 
zens of Rome or the inhabitants of Italy. The pretorians 
received double pay, and were commanded by the prczfectus 
pretorii. Augustus kept only 3 of the cohorts in the city, the 
rest being scattered throughout the peninsula. But, under his 
successors, the pretorians were all collected into a camp at 
the gates of the city. Their number seldom exceeded 20,000. 

Population — The population of the empire is com- 
puted at about 100,000,000 ; * and, during the long 
period of peace and prosperity which ensued, it probably 
continued to increase for another century. Rome, under 
Augustus, may have reckoned 700,000 — a number probably 

*Of these 4,000,000 may have been Roman citizens) but what pro- 
portion were Romans cannot even be guessed at. 

46 



542 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXII. 

equalled by both Antioch and Alexandria. Though the 
population of Rome became larger subsequently, it never 
perhaps much exceeded 1,000,000. 

Embellishment of Rome. — Augustus took great pride 
in the embellishment of Rome. " I found it of brick," he 
was wont to say; "I shall leave it of marble." Yet he 
would not trespass on the rights of the inhabitants, prefer- 
ring to leave some designs unfinished or imperfect, rather 
than encroach upon the property of others. In this work of 
improvement, he was seconded by his nobles, and especially 
by his friend Agrippa, who, having secured, by his signal 
services in the field, the second place in the commonwealth, 
loyally abstained from aiming at the first. In the year B. C. 
23, when Augustus, prostrated by fever, seemed unlikely to 
recover, it was to Agrippa that he handed his ring — hinting 
thus that it was upon him he wished to see the empire con- 
ferred. To Agrippa he intrusted, on his recovery, an east- 
ern command, which made him almost equal to himself. 

Augustus in Spain (b. c. 24) and in the East (b. c. 21). 
— In the year 29 b. c, the conqueror of Actium solemnly 
closed the temple of Janus — an event of which only two 
previous instances are recorded, viz., during Numa's reign, 
and after the first Punic war. Soon, an outbreak of the 
Cantabrians compelled the emperor to reopen Janus. He 
marched in person against the rebels ; but, stricken by sick- 
ness, left it to his generals to complete their reduction, after 
which Janus was once more closed. 

In b. c. 2 r , Augustus made a progress through his eastern 
dominions, during which he punished Tyre and Sidon for 
their turbulence, and prevailed upon the Parthian king 
Phraartes, to restore the eagles taken from Crassus.- 

VlCTORIES OVER THE GERMANS AND PANNONIANS (B. C. 

I 5 - 6). — In the year 15 B. c, the security of the empire was 
threatened by barbarian tribes along its whole northern fron- 
tier, and some legions were defeated by the Germans on the 
Lower Rhine. But the vigilance and activity of Tiberius 
and Drusus — the two sons of the empress Livia by her 
former husband —averted the danger. Acting in concert, 
they defeated the Breuni and the Genauni, and crushed the 
Vindelici and the Rhseti; then, parting company, Tiberius 
went to quell an insurrection in Pannonia, while Drusus, from 
his government in Gaul, not only checked the Germans, but 
penetrated far into their country. On his return from a 



B. C. 29-A. D. 14. AUGUSTUS. 543 

third invasion, the young conqueror died of a fall from his 
horse (b. c. 9). The title of Germanicus, conferred on him 
after his death, descended to his son. Tiberius then took the 
command of the army, and gained a great victory over the 
Sigambri. In B. c. 6, being called back to Rome, he cele- 
brated a triumph, was saluted imperator, and received the 
tribunitian power for 5 years. 

Birth of Christ (a. m. 4963, a. u. c. 753 *).— The most 
memorable event during the reign of Augustus, was the birth 
of the Redeemer. In the 753d year from the foundation of 
Rome and the 31st from the battle of Actium, "Jesus Christ, 
eternal God and Son of the eternal Father, being desirous to 
sanctify the world by His mysterious coming, was conceived 
by the Holy Ghost, and, nine months having elapsed since 
his conception, was born in Bethlehem of Judah, having be- 
come man in the womb of the Virgin Mary." 

Thus did the Messiah, who had been expected for nearly 
five thousand years, appear at the time when the vast extent 
of the Roman empire, the intimate connection of its various 
parts, and the general use of the Latin language, might facili- 
tate the preaching of the Gospel. 

The comparative tranquillity which the civilized world was 
then enjoying, was a not unfitting image of that spiritual peace 
which the eternal Son of God had come to bring to mankind. 

The Imperial Family. — Augustus had but one child, 
Julia, who was born of his second wife, Scribonia. Julia was 
first married to the nephew of Augustus, Marcellus, f who 
died young. Her next husband was Agrippa,J to whom 

*The best among modern critics refer the birth of the Savior to 
the 25th of Dec, a. u. c. 749, that is, 4 years and a few days b. c. 
Though our era is too late by four years, the commonly-received 
date is here preserved to avoid confusion. 

fSon of M. Marcellus and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. 
Marcellus died (b. c. 23) at the age of twenty, leaving no offspring; 
he had given high promise of ability, as we learn from the match- 
less praises bestowed upon him by Virgil. 

X In B. c. 12, Agrippa died. Augustus then prevailed upon 
Tiberius to divorce his own wife, to whom he was sincerely 
attached, in order to marry Julia. Their union was an unhappy 
one ; and, after living together for about a year, they separated for 
ever. The conduct of Julia had long been marked by gross 
immoralities, which Augustus alone refused to believe. When at 
last he became convinced of her guilt, he had her banished (b. c. 
2) to an island off the coast of Campania. Her daughter Julia, who 
had shared in her excesses, was also sent into exile. 



544 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXkll. 

she bofe three sons — Cams, Lucius, Postumus — arid two 
daughters, Julia and Agrippina. Caius and Lucius died 
before reaching the age of maturity, and Augustus deemed 
Postumus unfit for the succession. Julia dishonored the 
imperial family by her licentiousness, and left no issue. 
Agrippina was married to the celebrated Germanicus, by 
whom she had a numerous progeny. One of her sons, 
Caius, reigned under the name of Caligula ; and, of her 
grandsons, one was the too notorious Nero. 

Livia and her Sons. — In the year 38 b. C, Octavius, 
after divorcing Scribonia, snatched Livia Drusilla from her 
husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero, and married her himself. 
She was already the mother of a son — Tiberius, and within 
three months gave birth to a second, Drusus, of whom 
Octavius was reputed to be the father. Livia bore no more 
children, but maintained her dominion over the heart of her 
husband, and secured for her sons a place in his affections. 
Tiberius and Drusus were both men of ability, and proved 
not unworthy of the confidence placed in them by Augustus. 
To secure their aggrandizement, Livia, a woman of strong 
intellect and unbounded ambition, hesitated at no effort and 
no crime,* and the darkest suspicions were aroused at Rome 
by the death, one by one, of every person who stood 
between Tiberius and the throne. When at last Tiberius 
alone survived, Augustus adopted him as his son, and 
invested him with tribunitian power (a. d. 4). 

Insurrection in Pannonia (a. d. 6-9). — In a. d. 6, a 
formidable insurrection in Pannonia caused much anxiety to 
the aged Augustus, and forced Tiberius to concentrate all 
the military strength of the empire in that quarter. To put 
down the rebellion it required three whole years. 

Varus and Arminius. — The peace of Augustus was 
further disturbed by a great military disaster. The terri- 
tories overrun by the Romans beyond the Rhine, had been 
formed into a province, with its government entrusted to the 
proconsul Varus. Thinking that the Germans were really 
subdued, he attempted to rule them by the subtle Roman 
law rather than by the sword. The wary Arminius (Herman), 
a young chief of the Cherusci, incited his countrymen to 
profit by this imprudence. A revolt was planned. Varus 

*It was believed, at Rome, that Livia and her son removed the 
two young Caesars — Lucius in a. D. 2 and Caius in a. d. 3 — by- 
poison and assassination. 



B. C 29-A. t>. 14. AUGUSTUS. 545 

confronted the rebels with three legions ; and, among the 
passes. of the Teutoburg forest, was routed and slain. With 
him perished most of his men, and three eagles were carried 
off — a defeat not unlike those of the Allia, Cannae, and Car- 
rhae. When the aged emperor was apprised of the event, he 
sunk into a state of nervous despondency, allowed his beard 
to grow untrimmed for months, and was heard to exclaim 
" Varus, Varus, give me back my legions ! " 

Closing Years of Augustus. — The revolt of the Pan- 
nonians, the defeat of Varus, the difficulties of raising levies 
to check the barbarians, the scandalous conduct of some of 
the members of the imperial family, and his multiplied 
bereavements, were so many circumstances which cast a 
gloom over the closing years of Augustus. He felt more- 
over, that he had outlived the favor with which he had so 
long been regarded by the Roman populace. Yet, through 
all these trials, the aged emperor bore himself with dignity. 

The 'Acts' of Augustus. — When he felt his end 
approaching, he held a third census of the people, which was 
completed A. d. 14. He spent the next few months in com- 
piling a brief statement of his acts, which has most fortu- 
nately been preserved to modern times by its inscription on 
the walls of a temple still standing at Ancyra. This record 
extends over a period of 58 years, and enumerates achieve- 
ments hardly equalled by any other single individual. 

His Death (a. d. 14). — His last summer was spent in 
moving gently from one villa to another, until death laid 
hands upon him, at Nola. After desiring that his gray hairs 
and beard might be set in order, Augustus asked his friends 
around nim, whether he had played well his part in life's drama; 
and, on receiving an affirmative answer, muttered adverse 
from a comic epilogue, " Give then your applause." Thus, 
at the age of seventy-six, he expired, on the 19th of August, 
a month formerly called SextUis, but to which he had given 
his name. He was buried at Rome with great pomp, and 
divine honors were paid to his memory. 



CHAPTER XXXIII. 
The Reign of Tiberius Cesar. — a. d. 14-37. 
Accession of Tiberius. — The fidelity of the few troops 



546 AXCIKNT ROM1- Chapt, XXXTTT. 

about the capital, was assured to Tiberius by the oath they 
had taken to him, as the coadjutor of their late imperator 
Augustus, Hence the decease of the latter and succession 

of the former were proclaimed together to the soldiers, who, 
together with the consuls and chief magistrates, swore obedi- 
ence to Tiberius as their imperator. The senators, whom 
Tiberius summoned by virtue of his tribunitian power, 
hastened to offer to him the remaining functions annexed 
under Augustus to the imperial dignity. Tiberius, afrer a 
decent show of resistance, consented to become the chief of 
the Roman people. 

Discontent of the Legioxs.— On receiving the first 
news of the late emperor's death, the legions stationed on 
the Danubian and Rhenish frontiers, mutinied, demanding' an 
increase of pay and an earlier discharge from military ser- 
vice. The commander of the forces in Pannonia, Bsesus 3 was 
compelled to send their complaints to Rome. The emperor 
replied by placing o\ er them Drusus, his son. But he gave 
the young prince no definite instructions ; and it was only 
by the accident of an opportune eclipse which alarmed the 
disaffected, that lie was enabled with some trifling concessions 
to recall them to the standards. — On the Rhine, the position 
of Germanicus was still more delicate. The legions under 
his command threatened to carry him in triumph to the 
city, and thrust him into the seat of the empire. But, by 
opportunely exercising severity and lenity, lie at length suc- 
ceeded in reestablishing subordination. He soothed the 
passions of the soldiers by money and promises; and, in 
order to turn their thoughts into another channel, led them 
into Germany, to avenge the massacre of the Varian legions 
and recover the lost eagles. 

Campaigns of Germanicus (a. p. 14-16! — He pene- 
trated some distance into the country of the Brueteri, 
Tubantes. and I'sipetes. But. the enemy filling back before 
the invaders and refusing to engage in a general action, the 
Romans were compelled to retire for the present, without 
having gained any permanent advantage. The following 
year, Germanicus commenced his operations earlier in the 
season. \Yitlv4 legions he embarked on the German sea. 
while 4 other legions and the cavalry proceeded by land. 
All arrived in due time at the place of destination, and the 
whole army inarched towards the forest where the bones of 
Varus and his legions were said to lie unburied. When 



V B til.: :u 

thi'N reached the spot, an awful spectacle mot theij view 
rhe ground lay covered with bones, eithei thinly 
01 lymg in heaps, as the unfortunate soldiers happened to 
fall In mght, 01 tn i body resisted to the la it l luman si 
were seen upon the trunks of the treesj And* neat b) in the 
woods, stood the blood st lined altars on which tribunes and 
centurions had been offered up In sacrifice Deep!) affected 
.u this mournful sight, the soldiers oi Germanicus reverent!) 
buried the remains; audi the solemn rites over, began 
slowly to retreat Arminius, whose counsels bad till then 
thwarted by Intestine dissensions among i,: - countr) 
uiv'ii, iu-u ventured to atta< k the invaders But he met with 
a severe repulse, and the Romans were enabled to effect a 
safe return 

Next spring, Germanicus made a third eainpalgn ovei tlu> 
same region, and su< ( eeded In * .-mum.; to a genei i] cue ig< 
ment with the entire force oi ^rminius He gained a com 
plete victory, and proved himseli s i iptain worthy >•< the 
d \) • oi Rome rhe emperoi • jealousj ol his 
nephew s military fame and popularity with the sofdiei i, w is 
now fulh awaktnedi and, undei various pretexts, Gehnaui 
cus was recalled* 

pi \iuvm \K\ir\it'. Glorious as were the campaigns oi 
Germanicus, then practical results, In the eves ol the 
emperor, were not adequate t*> the expense oi blood and 
money which they entailed* Hberiua, moreover, rightly 
judged that the Germans, so soon &s thedread oi Roman 
invasion disappeared, would again fall to quarreling among 
themselves ^nd it so happened A.rmimus, at the he id ol 
the Cherusci, waged a successful wai upon s rival chieftain, 
Maroboduus, king oi iiu> Marcomannl (march»mcn, oi 
bordei warriors) Elated by his triumph, he had the ambl 
inMiic.uui.u the sovereign power, thereupon, the Inde 
pendent spirit oi his countrymen turned man) oi them 
against him, krminius fought with various success, and fell 
at last by the treachen of his own relations, He had lived 
oni\ ; /ears, during i i of which he successfully maintained 
a certain bond of union among the tribes oi Northern Gei 
many, Aiiumui'. was celebrated foi ages afterward In ilu* 
heroic songs of then fatherland* as a champion oi Indepen 
dencej and his name holds an Imperishable place In liters 
ture, as the symbol of the aspirations oi the German race (bi 
freedom h»>m external conquerors 



54 8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIII. 

From the death of Arminius, Roman influence was 
extended in Germany by policy rather than by arms. The 
mutual jealousies of rival families and tribes were fostered ; 
bribery and cunning were resorted to ; traders, settling 
among the Germans, accustomed them to peaceful commerce 
and intercourse with the Romans. Their warriors freely 
entered the service of Rome, and before long they formed 
the core of the legions. 

Death of Germanicus (a. d. 19). — Germanicus, on his 
return from the field of his exploits, enjoyed the honors of a 
splendid triumph. He was soon after sent by the emperor 
to Asia, with extraordinary powers. To reduce Cappadocia 
and Commagene to the form of provinces; to tranquillize 
Syria and Judea, which, under the pressure of taxation, gave 
signs of uneasiness ; to overawe the Parthians, whose loyalty 
to their engagement trembled in the balance, — such were the 
objects of the prince's Oriental mission. He acquitted him- 
self well. But, during his progress through the east, he 
sickened, and died of a wasting illness. The Romans, who 
loved him passionately, believed that he had been poisoned. 
Piso, a haughty noble, who had accompanied the young 
prince as adjulor, was thought to be the instrument used by 
Tiberius to commit the foul deed. 

Tiberius at Capre^e (a. d. 27-37). — Be tn ^ s as ft mav > 
the emperor, who was jealous of his nephew, showed little 
and felt still less regret at his loss. Till then, Tiberius had 
concealed the perverse inclinations of his heart. After the 
death of Germanicus, he soon broke all restraints. One 
virtuous influence however still remained — that of his mother 
Livia. When, at last, she too died (a. d. 29 >, the satisfac- 
tion of Tiberius was hardly disguised. Henceforth, he unre- 
servedly exhibited himself in his true character. He caused 
the widow of Germanicus, Agrippina, and her two eldest 
sons, to perish of ill treatment and starvation. He resigned 
the whole management of affairs to an unworthy favorite, 
yElius Sejanus ; and, withdrawing from the vexations of 
public life at Rome, settled himself in the voluptuous island 
of Caprese. Here he indulged in all the excesses of debauch- 
ery. Warned that Sejanus had contrived a plot for his 
assassination, he anticipated the blow, and the traitor, with 
most of his friends and relations, was sent to execution 
(a. d. 3 1 ). For six years longer, Tiberius lived in sensuality, at 
Capreae, his cruelties ever keeping pace with his debaucheries. 



A. D. 14-17. TIBERIUS. 549 

Law of Majesty: the Informers. — As the emperor 
feared and hated the great Roman houses, whose members 
still affected equality with himself and the imperial family, 
they were the chief objects of his animadversion. The more 
easily to break down their spirit of independence, the law of 
Majesty, originally devised as a special security for the 
tribunes, and restricted to overt attempts on their life, was 
extended now to all words or writings which could be con- 
strued to imply disregard for the person of the emperor 
and of those who were closely connected with him. Many 
were the nobles, both men and women, who, during the 
reign of Tiberius, fell victims to this cruel and sweeping 
law. It gave rise to the system of delation — a new feature 
of the imperial policy, and filled all Rome with spies 
and informers. < These were rewarded with a large share of 
the confiscated fortunes of their victims ; and so degraded 
were many of the nobles, that they did not scruple to acquire 
wealth by preying upon their own order. 

Preaching and Death of Christ (a. d. 33). — Whilst 
these painful transactions took place in Rome, Judea was the 
theatre of most interesting events. For more than three 
years, our Lord favored it with the public spectacle of his 
heavenly virtues and the preaching of his Gospel, which he 
confirmed by many miracles, until by his passion and death 
he completed the great work of our Redemption. The 
third day after his crucifixion, he rose glorious from the dead, 
frequently appeared to his disciples, giving them, during 
forty days, all necessary instruction about the establish- 
ment and government of his Church ; committed to 
St. Peter the care of his flock ; commissioned him and the 
other apostles to go and teach all nations, with the positive 
promise of his daily assistance till the end of the world ; and 
then, in their presence, ascended into heaven. 

Diffusion of the Gospel. Ten days later, the Apos- 
tles being all assembled in Jerusalem, the Holy Spirit came 
down upon them in a visible manner. They immediately 
began to preach with astonishing success. The first two dis- 
courses of St. Peter converted 8000 Jews. Many more after- 
wards embraced the faith, so that, even before the close of 
the reign of Tiberius, a numerous Church was already estab- 
lished in Jerusalem, whence the light of the Gospel began to 
•diffuse itself in every direction, and in every part of the 
world. 



55 o ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIV. 

Death and Character of Tiberius. — Prominent 
among the vices of Tiberius, was a mean jealousy of those 
who possessed the qualities in which he himself was most de- 
ficient. This feeling he exhibited against the gallant Ger- 
manicus ; against the widow of that young prince, Agrippina, 
who stood high in popular favor ; and even against his own 
son, Drusus, the news of whose death he received with a 
composure almost incredible. Indeed, all the members of 
the imperial family, one after another, aroused the suspicions 
of the tyrant, and nearly all fell victims to his jealousy. 
Even when his end drew near, Tiberius steadily refused to 
nominate an heir to the empire, for fear his officers should 
transfer their devotion from himself to his destined successor. 
His death occurred on March 16, A. D. 37. The Romans, 
who detested him during his life, abhorred his character no 
less after death ; and their execrations have been echoed by 
posterity 

Prosperity of the Empire. — It is, however, important 
to remark that the crimes and vices of Tiberius were chiefly of 
a personal nature, and did not largely affect his government 
of the empire. While his tyranny was felt at Rome by the 
nobles, Italy and the provinces, during his reign, enjoyed 
tranquillity, and flourished with a peaceful prosperity pre- 
viously unknown. Faithful to his own maxim, ' that the sheep 
must be sheared, not flayed,' he took care that his subjects 
should not be oppressed by excessive taxes, and was atten- 
tive to afford speedy assistance to towns or provinces visited 
by extraordinary calamities. Thus, when 12 cities of Asia 
Minor were laid waste by an earthquake, in A. D. 17, besides 
granting a remission of all tributes for five years, he sent 
large sums to the sufferers. On two different occasions also 
he indemnified the inhabitants of Rome, whose houses had 
been burnt by an extensive conflagration. In fine, seeing 
that the practice of exacting heavy interests caused great 
distress, he placed for three .years a considerable fund at the 
disposal of the debtors, by which seasonable aid public 
credit was revived. 



CHAPTER XXXIV. 

Caligula. — Claudius. — Nero.— a. d. 37-68. • 

Caligula's Prodigality and Cruelty. — Caius Csesar, 



A. D. 37-41. CALIGULA. 55 1 

surnamed Caligula,* the youngest son of Germanicus, and a 
favorite with the legions for his father's sake, was proclaimed 
by Macro, commander of the pretorians, as the successor of 
Tiberius, and was acknowledged by the senate and the peo- 
ple with unfeigned satisfaction. His first acts gained him 
universal applause. He restored many privileges to the 
people, delivered innocent persons from prison and banish- 
ment, abolished arbitrary prosecutions for crimes of state, 
and evinced so good intentions, that he received from the 
senate the most flattering honors. 

But the joy of the Romans was not of long duration. 
Caligula, on recovering from a dangerous disease, which may 
have impaired his mind, at once began to indulge in every 
species of folly, cruelty, and licentiousness. In two months, 
he spent on shows and public entertainments more than sixty 
millions of dollars. When the large treasure left by Tiberius 
was exhausted, the plunder and murder of the wealthiest 
citizenswere the means to which Caligula resorted in order to 
procure fresh heaps of gold. Among many others, he put to 
death his young cousin Tiberius, his father-in-law Silanus, 
and his benefactor Macro, to whose influence he chiefly 
owed his peaceful accession to the imperial throne. On one 
occasion, when provoked by the indifference of the multitude 
to some of his shows, he uttered the exclamation, " Would 
that the people of Rome had but one neck ! " On another, 
happening to want money when at play, he sent for the pub- 
lic register which contained the names of the property- 
holders, condemned a certain number of them to death, and 
said to those with whom he was playing : " How unlucky 
you are ! It has taken you a long time to win a small sum, 
and in one moment I have won six hundred millions of 
sesterces ($15,000,000)." 

Caligula's Military Expeditions. — From his un- 
worthy course of lust and brutality, Caligula roused himself, 
in a. d. 39, to undertake a spirited enterprise. Lentulus 
Gaetulicus, proconsul of the Rhenish provinces, defying 
Tiberius, had refused to surrender his command ; and he 
was now suspected of being engaged in a conspiracy against 
the new emperor. Acting with promptness, Caligula sur- 
prised him, cut him off with his associates, and banished his 
own sisters, whom he found to be implicated. The follow- 

*From the military buskin, Caliga, which he wore as a child in 
the Rhenish camps. 



55 2 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIV. 

ingyear, he collected the legions near Gessoriacum (Boulogne), 
on the shore of the Channel, with the avowed intention of 
invading Britain. From a galley at sea, he reviewed his troops. 
But, instead of giving the signal to embark, he commanded 
the men to pick shells on the beach ; and, forwarding these 
' spoils ' to the senate, with the order to deposit them among 
the treasures of the Capitol, he set out for Rome, in order to 
celebrate a gorgeous triumph for his victory over the ocean. 
Finding, on his return, that the senate had been slow to 
issue the requisite decrees for his triumph, he now spurned 
that honor, and made his entry with an ovation only. 

His Insolence to the Nobles. — Henceforth his de- 
meanor towards the nobles grew more insolent and mena- 
cing. To show his contempt for them, he threatened to make 
his horse consul, and meanwhile clothed him in purple. At 
a public banquet, when the consuls were reclining beside 
him, he suddenly burst into a loud laugh. They courte- 
ously inquired into the cause of his mirth : " I was thinking," 
he replied, " that at a sign, I could make both your heads 
roll on the floor." 

His Death.— At last, a private affront offered to Cassius 
Chaerea, a pretorian tribune, aroused this man to a bloody 
revenge, for which accomplices were easily found. As the 
emperor was going, through a vaulted passage, from his 
palace to the circus, they suddenly dispatched him with 
thirty wounds. 

Accession and Character of Claudius. — By the as- 
sassination of Caligula, Rome was thrown into confusion. The 
senators wished to reestablish the commonwealth ; but they 
were compelled to submit to the pretorians, who proclaimed 
Tiberius Claudius Drusus emperor. The new Caesar, 
born in the year 10 B. C, was the youngest son 
of the eldest Drusus, and nephew of the emperor 
Tiberius, who had adopted him as his son. Feeble in body, 
of a timid disposition and apparent stupidity, he had been 
excluded from public affairs during the preceding reigns, 
and all political instruction had been purposely withheld from 
him. His special weakness — gluttony, his excessive conde- 
scension to the several wives he had in succession, coupled with 
the slowness of his wits, led contemporary writers* to draw a 
most unfavorable picture of this emperor. Yet, if he is to be 

*" Even the great Tacitus is not to be implicity relied on."— 
Merivale* 



A. D. 54-68. N&RO. 555J 

the Roman nobles from whom she apprehended opposition. 
All things being thus prepared for the succession of Nero, 
Agrippina hastened the event by poisoning the weak and 
misguided Claudius (a. d. 54). His reign had been, on the 
whole, a period of general prosperity and contentment for the 
empire. 

Favorable Promise of Nero's Reign (a. d. 54). — 
With the help of Burrhus, who presented him to the preto- 
rians as the heir of Claudius, Nero without difficulty ob- 
tained the imperial crown. The young emperor had en- 
joyed the benefits of a good education under the philosopher 
Seneca. While controlled by this wise tutor and by Burrhus, 
he preserved a show of decency in his public conduct. Like 
Tiberius and Caligula, he commenced his reign by perform- 
ing several laudable acts. He took great care to have the city 
plentifully supplied with every thing needful, and gave pen- 
sions to poor senators who could not otherwise support 
their rank and dignity. On a certain day, when a death- 
warrant was brought to be signed, " I wish,'' he said, " I 
had never learned to write." On another occasion, as the 
senate were expressing to him their deep gratitude, he re- 
plied: " I shall be happy to receive your thanks, when I 
truly deserve them." In a word, Nero's conduct, in the be- 
ginning, was such as gained him the affections of the Ro- 
mans. 

Murder of Britannicus, Agrippina, and Octavia 
— Poppjba. — Unhappily, Nero's vices could not long brook 
restraint. His true character soon appeared in its native 
deformity — a compound of baseness, cruelty, and infamy. The 
conduct of his own mother first gave occasion to the display 
of these vicious propensities. From the day of her son's 
accession, she had shared his power. But, as her influence 
was altogether evil, the ministers, Burrhus and Seneca, 
sought to weaken it by procuring the dismissal of her con- 
fidant, the freedman Pallas. Agrippina, to avenge herself, 
threatened to recommend Britannicus to the soldiers, as the 
true heir of Claudius. Nero's jealousy was awakened. At 
his own table and in his presence, poison was administered 
to the young prince, from the effects of which he soon expired 

(A. D. 55). 

A sort of reconciliation followed between the emperor 
and his mother. But Nero was beginning to sink into licen- 
tiousness. He fell in love with Poppaea Sabina, wife to 



554 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt XXXIV. 



east, Claudius effected a new settlement of the frontier prov- 
inces. Many suppliant princes, who had thronged the court 
of Tiberius and Caius, were sent off to govern their native 
realms in dependence upon Rome. Among these was Herod 
Agrippa, who, besides being confirmed in his sway over 
Galilee, received in addition the province of Palestine. The 
Jews, who had been on the brink of rebellion, owing to the 
threat of Caius to set up his statue in their temple, were 
pleased with this concession, and celebrated the return of 
Agrippa to Jerusalem as a national triumph. The reign of 
Herod was not of long duration. In the following year (a. 
d. 44), at Csesarea, after addressing the people, he was 
saluted by the Hellenizing section of them as a god. His 
death by a terrible disease followed within a few days ; his 
son was retained in Italy as a hostage ; and Judea became 
once more part of the proconsular province of Syria. — For 
several generations, the Jews had been accustomed to roam 
beyond the narrow limits of their own country. Wherever 
trade was active, in the great cities of the Euphrates, in 
Alexandria, in the ports of Greece and Asia Minor, they had 
settled in large numbers. Such a colony existed also at 
Rome, and occupied a quarter of their own. Many of these 
people were highly cultivated, and ingratiated themselves 
with the best families, to whom their religious doctrines began 
to be familiar. Julius Caesar and Augustus showed them 
much favor ; but their turbulence and quarrelsome disposi- 
tion caused Tiberius to deport 4000 of them to Sardinia. 
Under Claudius, owing perhaps to their hatred of the Chris- 
tians, they gave similar cause of offence. A scarcity of corn 
occurred ; and, finding it difficult to provide the Roman popu- 
lace with food, the government took the opportunity to order 
a general expulsion of the Jews. 

Last Years and Death of Claudius. — Agrippina. 
— On the death of his third wife, the wicked Messalina, by 
whom he had a son and a daughter — Britannicus and Octa- 
via, Claudius was induced to espouse his niece, the ambi- 
tious and cruel Agrippina. Abusing the facile temper of her 
consort, this intriguing woman caused Domitius, her own 
child by a first husband, to be married to Octavia, the em- 
peror's daughter, and to be adopted by him as his son under 
the name of Nero. She then set herself to gain the support 
of the army ; won over Burrhus, the prefect of the pretori- 
ans; and prevailed on her weak husband to prosecute all 



A. D. 54-68. NE-RO, 555 

the Roman nobles from whom she apprehended opposition. 
All things being thus prepared for the succession of Nero, 
Agrippina hastened the event by poisoning the weak and 
misguided Claudius (a. d. 54). His reign had been, on the 
whole, a period of general prosperity and contentment for the 
empire. 

Favorable Promise of Nero's Reign (a. d. 54). — 
With the help of Burrhus, who presented him to the preto- 
rians as the heir of Claudius, Nero without difficulty ob- 
tained the imperial crown. The young emperor had en- 
joyed the benefits of a good education under the philosopher 
Seneca. While controlled by this wise tutor and by Burrhus, 
he preserved a show of decency in his public conduct. Like 
Tiberius and Caligula, he commenced his reign by perform- 
ing several laudable acts. He took great care to have the city 
plentifully supplied with every thing needful, and gave pen- 
sions to poor senators who could not otherwise support 
their rank and dignity. On a certain day, when a death- 
warrant was brought to be signed, " I wish," he said, " I 
had never learned to write." On another occasion, as the 
senate were expressing to him their deep gratitude, he re- 
plied: " I shall be happy to receive your thanks, when I 
truly deserve them." In a word, Nero's conduct, in the be- 
ginning, was such as gained him the affections of the Ro- 
mans. 

Murder of Britannicus, Agrippina, and Octavia 
— Poppjea. — Unhappily, Nero's vices could not long brook 
restraint. His true character soon appeared in its native 
deformity — a compound of baseness, cruelty , and infamy. The 
conduct of his own mother first gave occasion to the display 
of these vicious propensities. From the day of her son's 
accession, she had shared his power. But, as her influence 
was altogether evil, the ministers, Burrhus and Seneca, 
sought to weaken it by procuring the dismissal of her con- 
fidant, the freedman Pallas. Agrippina, to avenge herself, 
threatened to recommend Britannicus to the soldiers, as the 
true heir of Claudius. Nero's jealousy was awakened. At 
his own table and in his presence, poison was administered 
to the young prince, from the effects of which he soon expired 
(A. d. 55). 

A sort of reconciliation followed between the emperor 
and his mother. But Nero was beginning to sink into licen- 
tiousness. He fell in love with Poppsea Sabina, wife to 



55 6 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIV. 

Salvius Otho and the fairest woman of her time. She, aspir- 
ing to the honor of the imperial couch, employed all her 
arts for the divorce of Octavia. As Agrippina opposed 
that scheme, the death of the emperor's mother was resolved 
upon. By Nero's contrivance, she was shipwrecked in cross- 
ing the calm waters of the gulf of Baiae. She escaped to land, 
and gained her villa on the coast, but only to fall by the 
hand of assassins (59). Octavia was suffered to live a few 
years longer, but was finally divorced and put to death. 
Poppaea then became empress, and reigned supreme, exci- 
ting public disgust by the luxury of her bath of milk,* and of 
her mules shod with gold. She too, in the end, fell a victim 
to the passionate temper of her husband, who, in her preg- 
nancy, gave her a kick which caused her death. 

Nero's Tyranny. — Whilst Nero thus sported with the 
lives of the members of his family, it may be readily imagined 
that strangers suffered no less at his hands. As his 
expenses were enormous, he found no more expeditious 
means of replenishing his coffers than the proscription of the 
richest citizens, and Rome lost daily some of her noblest 
sons. Virtue itself, says Tacitus, seems to have been an 
object of hatred to the tyrant. He not only ordered the 
self-destruction of his preceptor Seneca and the poet Lucan, 
but he put to death the two most distinguished and virtuous 
members of the senate, Barea Soranus and Thrasea Paetus. 
Corbulo, who had just conducted a most brilliant expedition 
against the Parthians, as the reward of his services, received 
sentence of capital punishment; and Vespasian narrowly 
escaped the same fate, for having slept whilst the emperor 
was singing on the stage. 

Nero as a buffoon. — In nothing else did Nero so dis- 
grace himself in the eyes of the citizens, as by his total dis- 
regard of the national traditions and loss of self-respect. 
Seeking the applause of the vulgar, and fond of exhibiting 
his supposed proficiency in Grecian arts, he engaged in the 
contests of the circus, acted the part of a comedian on 
the stage, and contended with professional singers and musi- 
cians. The nobles shuddered at such degradation ; but the 
rabble shouted with delight. 

Slaughter of the Druids in Mona (a. d. 61). — 
Whilst Rome witnessed these excesses, the bravery of her 

*To procure this, 500 asses were kept in constant attendance. 



A. £>. 54-68. NEko. ^5^ 

troops maintained the majesty of the empire in the distant 
provitices. Suetonius Paulinus resumed operations against 
the natives of Britain in A. D. 61, and penetrated into the 
isle of Mona (Anglesey). In this island, the Druids, retreat- 
ing step by step before the advancing invaders, had sought 
refuge in great number. To their influence was attributed 
the obstinate resistance which Britain offered to Rome. 
With the defeat of the Britons in Mona, the occupation of this 
island by Suetonius, and the slaughter of the Druids, the 
power of the native priesthood received a shock from which 
it never recovered. 

Boadicea: Subjugation of the Southern Britons 
(a. d. 6i). — While Suetonius was detained in Mona, the 
queen of the Iceni, Boadicea, complaining of bitter insults 
offered to herself and her daughters, roused her nation to 
arms. Several other tribes, equally weary of Roman inso- 
lence and extortions, joined in the insurrection. The colo- 
nies founded by the conquerors were laid waste with fire and 
sword, and 70,000 persons — citizens or allies — were, it is 
said, slaughtered by the natives. 

Suetonius was recalled by the news of the revolt. The Brit- 
ons vastly outnumbered his own troops, and at first har- 
assed them severely. But, as soon as he saw the enemy 
encumbered with plunder and grown over-confident, he gave 
them battle in a narrow plain, where they could assail him 
with only a few battalions at once, while their own wagons, 
laden with booty, so thronged their rear as almost to cut off 
the possibility of retreat. Despite the eloquence and cour- 
age of Boadicea, the barbarians broke before the steady 
onset of the legions. Eighty thousand natives were slain, 
and their queen put an end to her life. The revolt sub- 
sided as suddenly as it had risen. The Roman yoke now 
firmly fixed, soon brought prosperity to the country, whose 
wealth of flocks and mines was rapidly developed. Before 
the death of Nero, the Roman province extended to the 
Mersey and the Trent. 

Great Fire of Rome. — In the summer of the 64th year 
of our era, a great conflagration, which lasted nine days, 
destroyed or damaged 10 out of the 14 quarters of the city. 
The Romans were panic-stricken. They believed that the fire 
was the work of paid incendiaries. It was asserted that Nero 
had watched the flames from a turret of his palace, amusing 
himself all the while with singing verses on the burning of 



$5% 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIV. 



Troy. The belief gained ground that he had himself caused 
the conflagration, as a spectacle for his own wanton enjoyment. 

First General Persecution (a. d. 64-68). — To divert 
the public indignation from himself and remove these sus- 
picions, the emperor devised the satanical plan of laying this 
crime to the charge of the Christians. There were many of 
them already in Rome. As the purity of their lives was a 
censure on the corruption of the age, and their total separa- 
tion from pagan festivities an occasion of hatred and con- 
tempt, Nero thought them fit subjects for public vengeance. 
Numbers of them were arrested, and subjected to the most 
frightful torments. Some, enveloped in the skins of wild 
beasts, were left to be devoured by dogs. Others were 
roasted alive ; and many, wrapped in pitched cloth, were set 
on fire, so as to burn like torches in the imperial gardens. 
By the light thus afforded Nero delighted to ride through 
the avenues, in the dress of a charioteer. During this per- 
secution, St. Peter and St. Paul suffered martyrdom at Rome, 
on the same day, the former by the cross, the latter by the 
sword. 

Death of Nero (a. d. 68).-— Nero had gained his ob- 
ject. The first fury of his subjects had been assuaged, and 
it subsided into mere distrust or careless contempt. True, 
a plot for the destruction of the tyrant, to which Seneca and 
Lucan gave their adhesion, was arranged by Piso and other 
members of the aristocracy. But the scheme was betrayed, and 
the conspirators perished (a. d. 64). For four years longer 
Nero was allowed to proceed in his career of shame, and 
plunge still deeper, if possible, into his ignominious prosti- 
tution of the Roman character. At last, the news arrived 
that two provincial governors, Vindex in Gaul and Galba in 
Spain, had revolted. Virginius, with the legions of Ger- 
many, defeated Vindex. But the victors attached themselves 
to Galba, who at once made preparations to march upon 
Rome, at the head of the united forces of the two great 
provinces of the west. Thereupon Nero found himself 
abandoned by all. The senate decreed his death, and the 
pretorians refused to draw the sword in his defence. The 
tyrant fled by night from the city, and hid himself in the 
villa of one of his freedmen, four miles from Rome. He 
was traced to his hiding-place by the emissaries of the sen- 
ate, who were ordered to kill him ' in the ancient fashion,' 
that is, to beat him with rods till he died. Terrified at the 



A. D. 68-69. GALM, OTHO, VITELLIUS. 559 

thought of so horrible a death, Nero resolved to anticipate 
the executioners ; and, as the soldiers were bursting into the 
house, he stabbed himself, exclaiming : " What a musician 
the world is going to lose ! " With him, the adoptive race 
of the great dictator was extinguished. Henceforth, most of 
the emperors will be selected by the pretorian guards or 
the provincial legions. 



CHAPTER XXXV. 



Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. — Vespasian, Titus, and 
domitian. — a. d. 68-69. 

Galba experienced no difficulty in causing himself to be 
acknowledged emperor. He was of noble extraction, ven- 
erable for his age, and distinguished for his abilities in inferior 
employments. But, when emperor, his conduct answered 
neither the eminence of his dignity, nor the public expecta- 
tions. His parsimony and severity provoked the hatred of 
the soldiers, and they stabbed him in the middle of Rome, 
after he had reigned seven months (Jan. 15, 69). 

Otho and Vitellius. — Otho, once the husband of the 
famous Poppaea, had been the chief leader of the conspiracy 
against Galba, and he succeeded him upon the throne. 
Still, he was acknowledged only in the capital and in the 
neighboring provinces, the legions of Germany having de- 
clared for their commander Vitellius. The rivals had 
recourse to arms ; and Otho being defeated near Cremona, 
killed himself after a reign of three months. 

Gluttony of Vitellius. — Vitellius was now without a 
competitor, and thought himself secure of his prize. His 
success, however, was not so much owing to his own abilities, 
as to the exertions of his generals. His chief merit consisted 
in eating and drinking. He took four abundant meals every 
day, and all countries and seas were laid under contribution, 
in order to furnish the most exquisite game and fish for his 
table. No repast could be offered to him below the value of 
400,000 sesterces (about $10,000) ; so that even the richest 
citizens were ruined by his visit. Lucius Vitellius, his 
brother, gave him a dinner in which 2000 fishes and 7000 



5 6o Ancient romE. Chapt. xxxv. 

birds were served up. His guests lost their health in conse- 
quence of this excessive and uninterrupted good cheer. One 
of them, Vibius Priscus, having contracted a disease which 
dispensed him with attending those fatal repasts, congratu- 
lated himself, saying : " I was undone, had I not fallen sick." 

Vespasian Proclaimed Emperor in Syria (July ist, 
A. d. 69). — The legions of the east, which constituted nearly- 
one half of the whole military force of the empire, had thus 
far taken no part in the contest. Their commanders had been 
content with nominally acquiescing in the successive claims 
of Galba, Otho, and Vitellius. At last, the ambition of T. 
Flavius Vespasian, a plebeian of mean birth, but a general 
of remarkable talents, was aroused. He was then, together 
with his son Titus, engaged in suppressing a revolt which, 
two years before Nero's death, had broken out in Palestine. 
On the first of July, 69, his soldiers proclaimed him imper- 
ator y and, with the consent of his colleagues in the east, he 
was soon after saluted Csesar and Augustus. To his son 
Titus was entrusted the care of continuing the war in Pales- 
tine. Primus and Mucianus, his chief officers, with the 
troops that could be spared from the Jewish war, undertook 
to march upon Italy and Rome. 

Victories of Primus. — Primus, at the head of the van- 
guard consisting of three legions, entered Italy from the 
north. Though much inferior in number to his opponents, 
without waiting for the arrival of Mucianus, he boldly chal- 
lenged them to combat. His courage and confidence were 
rewarded by a hard-won victory on the plain of Bedriacum. 
The camp that surrounded Cremona, and the city of Cremona 
itself, fell into his hands. By this single blow, Primus had 
begun, and nearly finished, the war ; nor could the Vitellians 
ever regain their former ascendency. 

The victors soon appeared under the walls of Rome. 
Forming themselves into three divisions, they simultaneously 
attacked three gates of the city. The Vitellians went forth 
to meet them at all points ; but they could not resist the 
onset. The victors entering pell-mell with the vanquished, 
the combat was- kept up from street to street, until the Vitel- 
lians were driven to their last stronghold, the pretorian camp. 
This too was carried, and the Flavians, bursting in, put every 
man to the sword. 

Death of Vitellius (Dec, 69). — During the conflict, 
Vitellius had escaped to a private dwelling on the Aventine, 



A. D. 69-79. VESPASIAN. 561 

with the intention of making his way into Campfcnia. Under 
some restless impulse, he returned to his palace, and roamed 
aimlessly through its deserted halls, until, weary of wander- 
ing about, he hid himself behind a bed in the porter's room. 
Here he was discovered, and ignominiously dragged forth. 
With his hands bound and his garments torn, wounded and 
bleeding, he was hurried away at the point of the lance to the 
common dung-hill, where he was put to death. 

Revolt of the Jews (a. d. 66-70). — Ever since their 
subjection to Rome, the Jews had always borne the yoke 
with extreme reluctance. The tyranny and extortions of 
their governors added to their discontent ; and, under Florus, 
they rose in arms against their oppressors (a. d. 66). 
Their first efforts were successful. They repulsed Cesfeus 
Gallus, the governor of Syria, who came to the assistance of 
Florus. Vespasian, however, at the end of two years, drove 
them back from all their positions into Jerusalem. His eleva- 
tion to the purple preventing him from conducting the siege 
in person, he intrusted that care to his son Titus. 

Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (a. d. 70). — 
Jerusalem, one of the principal cities of the east, was a place 
of very difficult access. Its high position on two mountains, 
a double, even treble enclosure of strong walls and towers, 
where the approach was naturally easier, and many other 
fortifications, rendered it well-nigh impregnable. Behind its 
defences stood 24,000 trained soldiers, and these were sup- 
ported by a multitude of irregular combatants. But Jeru- 
salem contained within itself the seeds of inevitable ruin. 
As the Roman legions commanded by Titus encamped 
around the city about Easter, one of the principal solemni- 
ties of the Jews, an immense multitude of people found 
themselves shut up as in a prison. Their provisions were 
soon consumed, and famine began to exercise its ravages. 
Moreover, there were in the town furious factions, which, it 
is true, united their efforts to oppose the assaults of the 
Romans, but, as soon as the danger was over, quarrelled and 
fought among themselves. They let no day pass, without 
committing new cruelties, and staining with blood the streets 
of the city or the precincts of the temple. Titus had suc- 
ceeded, not without much exertion and considerable blood- 
shed, to effect a lodgement within the first and second walls, 
yet was at a loss how to proceed and triumph over the 
savage obstinacy of the besieged. Once more he called 



562 



Ancient rome. 



Chapt. xxxv. 



upon them to surrender, giving thcrn full assurance of par- 
don. This offer being rejected, he changed his plan of 
attack. By his orders, a wall six miles in circumference and 
fortified by thirteen towers, was built all around the city,- to 
prevent the escape of the rebels and the introduction of 
provisions. Henceforth, the most dreadful famine was felt 
within. The soldiers required to be served first, and 
violently snatched from the wretched citizens whatever little 
food they still possessed. Soon all were reduced to feed on 
such things as would in ordinary time excite only disgust. 
We may form an idea of the desperate condition to which 
the inhabitants of Jerusalem were reduced, when we learn 
that the necessaries of life were refused by mothers to their 
infants; nay, that children were even devoured by their 

parents. Famine so 
dire did the work of 
death upon thousands 
and thousands, and the 
city became filled with 
the dying and the 
dead. Yet, the sur- 
vivors kept up a des- 
perate resistance. At 
length, however, the 
Romans carried by 
storm the fortress Anto- 
nia, and became mas- 
ters of the lower part of 
the town. 

Most of the defenders now retired into the upper city on 
Sion, breaking down the causeway which connected it with 
the temple on Moriah. The -temple itself was stormed. It 
was the wish of Titus to save the sacred edifice. But a sol- 
dier, being lifted up by a comrade, threw a firebrand into 
one of the inner rooms contiguous to the sanctuary. The 
flames immediately rose. Despite the most strenous efforts 
on the part of both Jews and Romans, the whole sacred 
edifice was soon involved in a general conflagration. 
Within a few hours, it was reduced to a heap of ruins 
(August 10). After some further resistance, the last citadel 
of the rebels was carried, and its defenders were put to the 
sword. What the flames had spared, was levelled with the 
ground, excepting only some portions of the western walls 




A. D. 69-79. VESPASIAN. 563 

and three towers, which were preserved to shelter the 
Roman garrison. Eleven hundred thousand Jews are said 
to have perished during the siege. Ninety-seven thousand 
were made prisoners, and sold as slaves. Thus were 
the predictions of our Lord fulfilled. The destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem was the punishment of the deicide 
committed 37 years before, and the realization of the awful 
imprecation uttered by the Jews during our Savior's passion, 
" His blood be upon us and upon our children ! " Titus 
himself felt that he was but the instrument of divine ven- 
geance. 

Government and Character of Vespasian. — The 
reign of Vespasian henceforward passed in peace. Mature 
in years and long accustomed to military obedience, the 
emperor, after the attainment of unlimited power, continued 
to control his passions and caprices. He respected the 
laws himself, and caused them to be respected by others. 
He enforced military discipline, prevented or punished 
oppression, encouraged virtue and talents. By word and 
example, he sought to check the luxury of the Roman tables 
— now become an inveterate evil. A lover of plainness and 
simplicity, he frowned upon every form of extravagance and 
effeminacy. To a young man strongly perfumed, who 
came to thank him for a preferment, " I had rather," he said, 
11 that you smelt of garlic," and thereupon he immediately 
revoked his commission. 

Vespasian was also very careful to procure a speedy 
administration of justice. The pleadings frequently took 
place before him. His tribunal was public, and his judg- 
ments obtained general approbation. He has been accused 
of too great a love of money. The charge, not wholly 
unfounded, is extenuated by the necessities of his exhausted 
treasury. Nor should we forget that he ever made a noble 
and generous use of his revenues. The restoration of the 
Capitol, the erection of the Colosseum, were objects of 
national policy, which entailed enormous expenditure. On 
part of the site of Nero's Golden House, he constructed 
the magnificent public baths since known as the Baths of 
Titus. A new forum and a temple of Peace also added to 
the splendor of the capital. In his forum, Vespasian founded 
a library for the use of the citizens, and he was the first to 
give pensions to the professors of Greek and Latin eloquence. 
Krom his time, teaching and learning became at Rome, as 



5 6 4 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt . XXXV*. 

at Alexandria under the Ptolemies, an honorable profession, 
which not unfrequently led to public preferments. 

By such conduct, Vespasian, like Augustus, deserved and 
obtained the title of Father of his Country. At the age 
of seventy, full of toils and honors, he was called to his rest. 
Even during his last illness, he refused to relax his public exer- 
tions ; and, at the crisis of his disorder, required to be raised 
upright, saying that 'an imperator ought to die standing.' 
Pleasing Character of Titus (a. d. 79-81). — Titus, 
during his father's reign, had been admitted to a share of 
the imperial power. In his discharge of the censorship, his 
treatment of some offenders of rank had given him, among 
the nobles, a character for craft and cruelty ; but he ever 
remained the darling of the soldiers and a favorite with the 
\ people. From the day of his accession to the throne, he 
; seems to have made it his special care to treat the senate and 
the great with studied regard, and nothing appeared in him 
but generosity and benevolence. It was his wish that no 
suitor should leave his presence without at least some hope 
.and consolation ; and he is said to have complained that ' he 
/had lost a day/ when he had let the twenty-four hours 
pass by without some act of kindness. It is happy for 
his fame that the treasures accumulated by his father 
and his short reign of two years, allowed him to 
•carry on the government, and indulge in excessive profusion, 
without measures of extortion and proscription. His early 
death and his successor's tyranny have secured for him the 
fond appellation of the Delight of the human race. 

Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii (a. d. 
79). — The short reign of Titus beheld (a. d. 80) a conflagra- 
tion at Rome, scarcely less disastrous than the great fire 
under Nero. But still more famous than this catastrophe, is 
the great eruption of Vesuvius. A violent earthquake, rum- 
bling subterraneous sounds, the soil burning, the sea foaming, 
the heavens in a blaze — such were the forerunners of this 
dreadful visitation. Then, for three days, the volcano belched 
forth such a shower of ashes and such a flood of burning 
lava, as entirely buried the two cities of Pompeii and Hercu- 
laneum. The ruin of these towns was so complete, that the 
site was abandoned, and in the course of ages actually for- 
gotten. It was not till the last century, that this tomb of an 
ancient civilization was accidentally discovered.* In the 

*Herculaneum in a. d. 1713, and Pompeii in 1755. 



a;d. $1^96. boMifiA^Tj k6< 

temples and other buildings, under the ashes and lava have 
been found not only statues and vessels, but even fruits, 
olives, wheat, and bread in a state of preservation. Pliny the 
naturalist fell dead, suffocated by a sulphurous vapor which 
burst forth during the eruption. His nephew, Pliny the 
Younger, afterwards so famous for his eloquence, had the 
good fortune to escape. 

Domitian's Campaigns. — Desirous to win a military 
fame equal to that of his father or brother, Domitian put him- 
self at the head of the legions on the Lower Danube. He 
seems to have taken part in two campaigns against the Sar- 
matians and the Dacians, but achieved no remarkable glory. 
Yet, he had the impudence to boast in Rome of his pre- 
tended exploits, for which he gave himself the honor of a 
triumph. 

Agricola in Britain (a. d. 78-84) — Ireland. — More 
real and glorious were the successes of Julius Agricola, who, 
in seven successive campaigns, carried the arms of Rome 
victoriously from the Trent to the Forth and Tay, in North- 
ern Britain. An expedition of his fleet, which he directed 
to explore the coast to the farthest extremity of Britain, 
proved it to be actually an island — as Caesar and others had 
declared on hearsay. Some of his vessels descried the Ork- 
neys and Shetlands ; some of his land troops, from the Mull 
of Galloway, beheld the coast of Ireland, or, as the Romans 
called it, Hibernia. Iernis, or Ierne, which signifies in the 
Phoenician language ' the uttermost point, ' was the name 
first given to the island ; by the natives, it was called Erin. 
This lovely isle, destined to such celebrity in subsequent 
ages, seems to have been at this time in the full enjoyment 
of peace, happiness, and prosperity. That it early attained 
a high degree of civilization, is attested by the existence of 
bards and historians among the ancient Irish, by their liter- 
ary records, their proficiency in music, and the perfection of 
their laws. These laws, after the conversion of the island, 
needed but slight modifications to be made to harmonize with 
the gospel ; and the Senchus Mor (great book of rights) 
remained the law of the land down to Henry vni. 

It did not enter into the designs of Providence that Ireland 
should fall under the Roman sway. Neither Agricola, nor 
any other general or proconsul of imperial Rome, ever trod 
the green soil of Erin. As a consequence of this escape 
from Roman rule, the conversion of the island was delayed. 

48 



5 66 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXV. 

But, when once begun, it went on with unexampled rapidity. 
It was the work, peaceful and unbloody, of one single apostle 
— the glorious St. Patrick. 

Exactions and Cruelties of Domitian. — To satisfy 
the people who demanded shows and games in increasing 
profusion, and also to erect a triumphal arch which might 
rival that of his brother, Domitian, in the absence of plunder 
from abroad, found it necessary to require large gifts from 
every province, and levy exactions on the rich citizens. The 
discontent of the nobles soon became apparent. A military 
insurrection occurred on the Rhenish frontier. This Domi- 
tian suppressed with promptness and vigor. But, from this 
time, his jealousy of all persons of eminence increased, and 
he wreaked his vengeance by arbitrary executions on all who 
excited his suspicion. Not satisfied with putting to death 
many senators, he contrived the following scheme to frigh'en 
the other members of that body. He invited them to sup- 
per. As they arrived, they were conducted to an apartment 
hung with black and dimly lighted, where they perceived, 
besides a number of blackened boys who danced around the 
room, as many coffins as there were guests, with the name 
of each inscribed in large characters. Terror seized every 
one. A mournful silence reigned in the whole assembly. 
When the emperor had enjoyed their fright, he dismissed 
his guests with presents. Nor was it alone in the sufferings 
of his fellow-men that Domitian took his delight. He fre- 
quently amused himself in killing flies with a sharp bodkin. 
Hence a certain Vibius Crispus being asked if anyone was 
with the emperor, aptly replied, " Not so much as a fly." 

Second Persecution (a. d. 93-96). — Chief among the 
objects of Domitian's cruelty were the Christians. He 
excited against them the second general persecution, in 
which he spared neither his own relations nor the venerable 
age of St. John the Evangelist. The beloved apostle 
was brought from Ephesus to Rome, and plunged into a cal- 
dron of boiling oil, from which he came forth fresher and 
stronger. He was then banished to Patmos, where he wrote 
his Book of Revelations. After the accession of Nerva, he 
returned to Ephesus, composed his gospel at the request of 
the bishops of Asia, and died at a very advanced age. 

Assassination of Domitian (a. d. 96).— In the midst 
of his cruelties, Domitian lived in constant fear of assassina- 
tion. He had the gallery in which he usually walked, over- 



A. D. 97-98. NERVA, c6y 

laid with stones which reflected objects like a mirror, that he 
might see those who should attempt to attack him from 
behind. He surrounded himself with guards and informers. 
But all his precautions were of no avail. Tablets having 
been found in which he had designated the empress and 
some of his own household for death, the intended victims 
anticipated the blow ; and Domitian fell by the hands of his 
menials. He was the last of those emperors who have been 
specially denominated 'the twelve Caesars.'* 



CHAPTER XXXVI. 

Nerva — Trajan — Hadrian — Antoninus Pius — Marcus Aure- 

lius. — A. d. 96-180. 

Reign of Nerva (96-98). — Nerva, a venerable old sen- 
ator, who succeeded Domitian, was not the creation of mili- 
tary power, nor the scion of a line which owed its origin 
thereto. He was the nominee of the senate, and the first of 
five remarkable emperors selected by that body. He was 
not a Roman, nor even of Italian birth, his family having 
long been settled in the island of Crete. After him the em- 
perors, in long succession, were but provincial Romans, if not 
actually of foreign extraction. 

Nerva gave at the very beginning of his short reign, a 
striking proof of courage. As the pretorians clamored for 
the blood of the assassins of the late emperor, he boldly 
resisted the cry of vengeance, offering his own neck to the 
swords of the mutineers. He found it impossible, however, 
to shield the victims. But, to protect himself against further 
violence from the same quarter, he adopted the best and 
bravest of his officers, M. Ulpius Trajan, then in command 
on the Rhine, and offered him at once a share in the empire. 
The aged Nerva, by this master-stroke of policy, secured 
peace to the city, and to himself a dignified and tranquil 
reign during the few remaining months of his life. 

Qualities of Trajan. — Trajan was a native of Spain, 

* Most likely because Suetonius composed the biographies of 
those twelve only. Domitian and Titus with their father Vespa- 
sian are sometimes called the Flavian emperors. 



568 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVI. 

and belonged to an ancient Roman family long settled in 
that country. Possessed of an excellent constitution, an 
engaging and noble countenance, and great experience joined 
to mature natural abilities, he was moreover in the full vigor 
of his age. His elevation produced no change in his char- 
acter and conduct. Fully convinced that haughtiness con- 
ciliates neither affection nor esteem, and that condescension 
can be well allied to dignity, when he presented himself to 
the citizens at Rome, he at once won their favor by his 
gracious demeanor, even more than by the fame of his mili- 
tary exploits which had preceded him. The popularity he 
acquired during his first brief sojourn in the city, he retained 
to the last. No one ever questioned his right to the appel- 
lation of Optimus (the most excellent, or best), which the 
senate decreed to him in addition to his other imperial titles. 
He always gave the example of obedience to the laws. 
He seemed to retain his rank for the sole purpose of pre- 
venting anarchy, and never hesitated to sacrifice his preroga- 
tives to the true interest of the people. He took care, 
despite the wars he waged and the monuments with which 
he covered the empire, not to levy fresh contributions from 
his subjects. But the private life -of this excellent ruler was 
not without blame. Far from perfection indeed were even 
the best among the pagans ! 

Campaigns in Dacia* (a. d. 101-105). — Confident of 
his ability, and wishing to keep the legions occupied, Trajan 
led them first against the Dacian tribes, at that time under 
the sway of Decebalus. Before penetrating into their coun- 
try, he took care to secure his communications in the rear by 
constructing a road along the bank of the Danube, and span- 
ning the river itself with a bridge of great strength and 
magnitude. The conquest of Dacia, completed in a few 
vigorous campaigns, was recorded on the Column of Trajan. 
This column, still standing, formed the noblest ornament of 
Trajan's forum, laid out by the emperor in commemoration 
of his subjugation of Dacia. During his Dacian campaigns, 
as before his elevation to the throne, Trajan, ever vigilant 
and indefatigable, used neither horse nor chariot ; but 
marched on foot, after the ancient fashion, at the head of the 
troops. Dacia was so effectually subjugated and colonized 

*The wild tract of mountain, plain, and forest between the Danube 
and the Carpathians, now represented by Moldavia, Wallachia, 
and Transylvania, with part of Hungary. 



A. D. 98-II7. TRAJAN. 569 

by the Romans, that to this day the language of the people 
is substantially the Latin tongue. 

Trajan's Public Works (a. d. 106-114). — The peace- 
ful interval which followed the reduction of Dacia, Trajan 
devoted to the erection of works of embellishment and 
utility. At Ancona, the Arch of Trajan still reminds the 
traveller that this chief port of the Adriatic was constructed 
by him. The harbor of Civita Vecchia is to this day sheltered 
by Trajan's Mole. Another of his works is the bridge over 
the Tagus, at Alcantara. Trajan indeed 'built the world 
over', and Constantine compared him to a wall-flower, 
because his name was found inscribed upon so many build- 
ings throughout the empire. 

Trajan's Expedition to the East (a. d. 114-116). — • 
After eight years thus devoted to works of peace and to 
the administration of a beneficent government, Trajan, 
marching against the Parthians, advanced through Babylonia 
to the shores of the Persian Gulf. At Ctesiphon, he placed 
a creature of his own on the throne of Parthia, in the room 
of Chosroes. Assyria beyond the Tigris, Armenia and 
Mesopotamia, with some portions of Arabia, were reduced 
to the form of provinces ; but they never were solidly incor- 
porated into the empire, the new subjects availing themselves 
of the first Opportunity to shake off the yoke. Trajan him- 
self beheld the first success of their efforts, which death 
prevented him from checking. He died at Selinuntes, in 
Cilicia (a. d. 117). 

The Jews. — The expedition just related appears to have 
been caused by the intrigues of the Jews, who, driven from 
their own land, and scattered throughout the east, strove to 
unite their own people in a combined movement against the 
might of Rome, stirring up Parthians, Armenians, and 
Arabians against the common enemy. All their schemes 
were frustrated for the time by Trajan's sudden and vigorous 
campaigns. 

The Christians. — After the destruction of Jerusalem, 
the Jewish hopes of a Messiah were carefully inquired into 
by the rulers at Rome ; and all who pretended to a descent 
from David, were prosecuted. The Jewish religion, however, 
continued" to be tolerated throughout the empire. The 
Christians, on the contrary, as professing an unrecognized 
creed, not sanctioned by the senate, were not only outside 
the protection of the law, but liable to punishment. On 



575 ANCIENT &OME. Chapt. XXXVI. 

this plea had they suffered under Domitian, and by Trajan 
the persecution was renewed. At this time, Pliny the 
Younger was governor of Bithynia. When persons were 
brought before him, charged with the crime of being Chris- 
tians, his practice was to question them ; and, if they boldly 
confessed, he considered it is duty to put them to death. 
Finding, however, that this treatment only increased their 
numbers, and being convinced of their innocence, he wrote 
to the emperor for instructions on the subject. Trajan 
recommended mild measures, commanding that the Chris- 
tian should not be sought for, and that denunciations of them, 
which emanated chiefly from the Jews, should be discouraged. 
Still, if any were accused, and professed their guilt, the 
majesty of the law must be upheld. 

Third Persecution. — Meanwhile, multitudes continued 
to join the new religion. The east was rife with reports and 
expectations, propagated by the Jews, of a coming deliverer. 
Conflagrations at Rome, and the fatal eruption of Vesuvius, 
added to the alarm produced by the Christian prophecies of 
the destruction of the world by fire. The claim of the 
Christians to superior morality excited the passion of the 
populace, always intole-ant of such professions. The 
fact that a secret association, uniting in its bonds num- 
bers of persons of every class, was advancing in power, 
disturbed the minds of the rulers, who were accustomed 
ruthlessly to suppress every combination of the kind. All 
these influences seem to have been kindled into fierce activity 
by the coincidence of a destructive earthquake with the em- 
peror's visit to Antioch. The fanaticism and terror of the 
sufferers broke forth against the Christians, and Trajan 
stained his good name by encouraging a cruel persecution, 
which became memorable for the martyrdom of St. Ignatius, 
bishop of Antioch. 

Hadrian's Government (a. d. 117- 138). — Like his 
predecessor, Hadrian united, with a wretched life in private, 
great administrative abilities. As fond of peace as Trajan 
was of war, he^ restricted the empire to its ancient limits, 
abandoning all the conquests lately made beyond the Euphra- 
tes. Yet, he took the utmost care to provide against sudden 
dangers by always keeping the troops in good order , and 
for that purpose visited the various camps scattered through- 
out the empire, inquiring personally into everything con- 
nected with the military department. On these occasions, 



A. £>. 1 17-138. kADkiAri. 571 

he lived with the soldiers as one of them, using the common 
food, wearing a plain dress, and walking with head uncovered 
through the snow of the Alps, as well as through the burn- 
ing sands of Africa. By these means, Hadrian kept up the 
strictness of ancient discipline among the troops, making 
himself however very dear to them by his kindness, affabil- 
ity, and opportune favors. His attention to the affairs of 
government was incessant. It was one of his maxims, that 
the emperor ought to be like the sun, which illumines and 
vivifies the whole earth. He accordingly travelled through the 
provinces, redressing grievances, inquiring into the conduct 
of governors, and punishing such as abused their power. To 
facilitate the administration of justice, he caused a collection 
to be made of the best ancient laws ; and he himself enacted 
wise statutes against fraudulent bankruptcy and a variety of 
other disorders. Towards the senate his conduct was full of 
deference, except on the occasion of a conspiracy at the begin- 
ning of his reign, and in the last years of his life when infirmi- 
ties and disease soured his temper and led him into acts of 
violence and tyranny. The importance of the senate, how- 
ever, was much diminished, during this reign, by the establish- 
ment of a council of eminent men, presided over by a distin- 
guished lawyer,* to advise and assist the prince in the admin- 
istration of affairs. 

Hadrian's Attainments. — Hadrian seems to have been 
a man of wider acquirements and greater general ability, 
than any of the rulers before him since Julius Caesar. He 
was well versed in architecture and mathematics, and excelled 
in grammar, oratory, and poetry. His memory was aston- 
ishing. He remembered whatever he had seen or read ; 
and forgot none of the affairs which passed through his hands, 
nor the places where he had been, nor the names of those 
with whom he had conversed. 

His Great Works. — Among other monuments and 
great public works of this emperor, may be mentioned : in 
the capital, the Temple of Rome — the grandest in the city, 
and his Mausoleum, now the Castle of St. Angelo; in Pales- 
tine, ^Elia Capitolina, or the new city of Jerusalem ; and in 
Great Britain, a wall 80 miles long, extending from sea to 
sea, and intended as a protection against the incursions of 
the Caledonians. 

The Caledonians were among the chief tribes of North- 

*C©nsistorium Principis. 



572 ANCItfN? ROME. Chapt. XXXVI. 

ern Britain. Tacitus describes them as men with red hair 
and large limbs, who lived on the produce of their flocks or 
the chase, were addicted to predatory warfare, and fought in 
chariots with shields, short spears, and daggers. From them 
the whole region north of the firths of Forth and Clyde was 
by the Romans called Caledonia. 

The Picts and Scots.— The name of Caledonians 
ceased to be used about the beginning of the 4th century of 
the Christian era, when the inhabitants of Northern Britain 
began to be spoken of as Picts and Scots (Scoti). The for- 
mer were the ancient Caledonians, or Britons, who came to 
be denominated Picts (picti) from the practice of painting the 
body common among them. The Scots were colonists from 
the northeast of Ireland. Scotia was one of the old appella- 
tions of Erin, derived, it is supposed, from the name of the 
Milesian colonists, which we find written Kinea-Scuit or 
Scoit (Celto-Scythians). The Scots of Caledonia were at 
first confined to the western portion of the country and the 
neighboring isles. Subsequently, they spread through North 
Britain, became the dominant race, and so completely 
absorbed the Picts, that even the name of the latter dis- 
appeared, the whole tract becoming known as Scotia, or by 
way of distinction from Ireland Scotia Nova, Still, long 
after the union of the Picts and Scots into one monarchy 
under a Scottish ruler, Ireland continued to be called Scotia, 
and her people Scots. Hence the difficulty, which often 
occurs, of discerning whether the appellation of Scotus, 
applied to an ancient personage, is meant to designate a na- 
tive of Ireland or of Scotland. 

The Last Jewish Revolt (a. d. 132-136). — There had 
been partial revolts of the Jews under Trajan, who destroyed 
many of this infatuated people. Other insurrections also 
broke out, under Hadrian, in various remote localities. But 
the revolt of Palestine was more desperate and formidable. 
Depopulated though the country had been by Vespasian and 
Titus, the Jews in 60 years had again grown in'strength and 
numbers. Led by the last of their national heroes, the gal- 
lant Bar-Cochebas (the son of the star), and encouraged by 
the aged teacher Akiba, these blinded people once more 
rose in arms. Hadrian sent against them numerous troops, 
under two able leaders, Tinnius Rufus and Julius Severus. 
Within the space of three years, during which the war con- 
tinued, more than half a million of Jews are said to have per- 



A. D. I38-160. ANTONIUS PIUS. 573 

ished by the sword. A still larger number, probably, fell 
victims to sickness or starvation. The remnants of that un- 
happy nation were sold as slaves, and dispersed throughout 
the empire. 

Subsequent Fortunes of the Jews. — From that time, 
the Jews have been scattered all over the earth, without 
fatherland, without kings, rulers, or magistrates of their own 
blood; mingled, but not confounded with other races; 
still vainly awaiting their Messiah, and meanwhile exposed 
to constant persecutions : yet ever preserved by the mighty 
hand of God, to be both visible examples of his justice, and 
unexceptionable witnesses to the truth of the Old Testament, 
wherein we read alike our claims and their condemnation. 

Hadrian and the Christians. — Hadrian distinguished 
between the Jews and the Christians. The latter he recog- 
nized as loyal citizens, and discouraged the local persecutions 
to which they were exposed. During his sojourn at Athens, 
they ventured to approach him as a seeker after the truth ; 
and he listened graciously to the apologies of Quadratus and 
Aristides, who were famous for their wisdom and learning. 
On his death-bed, he composed verses expressing his con- 
viction of the immortality of the soul, and the fears which he 
entertained respecting his future destiny. 

Character of Antoninus Pius (a. d. 138-160). — The 
name of Antoninus,* is after that of Augustus, the most dis- 
tinguished of the long imperial series. The new emperor, 
an adopted son of Hadrian, was already in his 52nd year, 
when he began to reign. He was the first Roman ruler 
that seems to have devoted himself to the task of govern- 
ment with a single view to the happiness of his people — a 
fact worthy of notice, and showing a decided progress of hu- 
manity, due, no doubt, to an indirect influence of Christian 
ideas. Antoninus introduced important financial reforms, 
and gave a special attention to the administration of justice. 
Clemency, kindness, and cheerfulness, were his character- 
istic virtues. Many are the instances related of his meek- 
ness and forbearance. Such as he had been — kind, modest, 
and dignified — as a senator ; such he continued to be as 
emperor. Some of his predecessors had mixed with the 
nobles, on a footing of equality ; he was patient with the 

* It was borne also by his successor Marcus Aurelius. The age 
of the Antonines is generally reckoned as beginning with the 
accession of Nerva. 



574 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVI. 



populace, even when once on the occasion of a dearth in the 
city, they assailed him with stones. 

A Protector of the Christians. — But the great 
merit of this paternal ruler was his protection of the Chris- 
tians, of whose innocence he became convinced chiefly 
through the eloquent apology of St. Justin. In a rescript to 
the magistrates in Asia Minor, where there had occurred 
popular outbreaks against the Christians, he praised their 
fidelity to God, extolled their courage in suffering, and con- 
trasted their virtues with the vices of their persecutors. In 
conclusion, he declared that, the profession of Christianity 
being no crime, those who were brought before the courts on 
no other charge, should be acquitted, and the accusers pun- 
ished. 

A Friend of Peace. — Antoninus was a decided friend of 
peace. The saying of Scipio, u I like better to preserve one 
citizen than to kill iooo enemies," was often on his lips ; and 
he had the satisfaction to enjoy a peaceful reign. His repu- 
tation for wisdom and impartiality was such, that the very 
barbarians submitted their differences to him. The Indians, 
Bactrians, and Hyrcanians, testified their respect by solemn 
embassies. The Parthian king, being requested by letter 
not to invade Armenia, complied through deference for 
Antoninus. Indeed under him, the least ambitious of her 
rulers, the authority of Rome reached its loftiest heights. 
Henceforth the empire is doomed to gradual decline. 

Geography. — The reign of Antoninus was signalized by 
some great works of geographical interests — the System of 
Geography of Ptolemy, the Itinerary of Antoninus, and the 
Periplus of the Euxine and of the Erythraean, or Indian 
Ocean, by Arrian. 

The Reign of Marcus Aurelius (a. d. i6i-i8o)an 
Unceasing Warfare. — Aurelius was not so free from 
prejudice as his predecessor ; yet strove to imitate his zeal 
for the public good and his application to business. But it 
was the misfortune of the new sovereign to be entangled in 
almost perpetual warfare. An irruption of the Moors into 
Spain, of the Chatti into Gaul and Rhaetia, of the Parthians 
into Syria, occupied his attention during the earlier part of 
his reign ; and, later, the Germans, Scythians, and Sarma- 
tians, allowed him still less repose. 

The Parthian War and the Fourth Persecution 
(a. d. i 66). — The Parthian war, marked in the beginning by 



A. D. l6l-l8o. MARCUS AURELIUS. 575 

a series of disasters, was by the ability of Avidius Cassius at 
last brought to a triumphant close. But these successes 
were dearly purchased by the Romans. The returning legions 
carried back with them the seeds of a terrible pestilence. 
Famine, fires, and earthquakes, added to the general alarm. 
Victims were loudly demanded to appease the anger of the 
gods, and Aurelius was persuaded to sacrifice the Christians 
whom the popular fury designated as the cause of the calam- 
ities of the empire. A fourth persecution set in, which proved 
more general and more cruel than any of its predecessors. 

War on the Northern Frontier (a. d. 167-180). — 
The danger from the various tribes of barbarians who 
threatened the northern frontier, induced Aurelius to take 
the command in person. The emperor, philosopher as he 
was, applied to this uncongenial task with unwearied energy ; 
and, for thirteen years, he fought the battles of the common- 
wealth with the earnestness and bravery of the great cap- 
tains of old. But the contest with his northern assailants 
was checkered with many reverses. 

The Thundering Legion (a. d. 174-180). — On one 
occasion, the Romans, surrounded by the Ouadi, were on the 
point of perishing from heat and thirst. In that extremity, 
the soldiers of the 12th legion, all Christians, betook them- 
selves to prayer, and presently an abundant rain fell which 
refreshed the Romans, whereas hail, thunder, and lightning, 
spread confusion among the barbarians, and enabled the 
emperor to gain a complete victory. The name of Thmider- 
ing was, in consequence, applied to that legion, and the per- 
secution ceased for a time. Aurelius did not live to see 
the end of the great Sarmatian war. It was concluded, soon 
after his death, by a disgraceful peace, which his son's 
advisers purchased from the barbarians. 

The Empire and the Barbarians. — Marcus Aurelius, 
though not endowed with brilliant military genius, yet com- 
manded his legions with courage and earnestness, and was 
not ill seconded by his officers and men. But the armies of 
Rome were no longer what they once had been. Her for- 
eign mercenaries could not compare for martial vigor with 
her sons of old ; nor did they feel the same interest in her 
welfare. On the other hand, the Germans and Scythians 
pressed forward with all the audacity that belongs to the 
lusty youth of nations. From this time, the tide of victory 
began to set against Rome. Her attitude became purely 



576 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVII. 



defensive ; and, though she fought bravely, her defence was 
cripoled by a sense of weakness, and at length by antici- 
pation of defeat. 

Stoicism and Christianity. — Aurelius had from his 
youth applied to philosophical and literary pursuits. He 
studied under Herodes Atticus and Cornelius Fronto, two 
famous rhetoricians, and also under the stoic philosophers 
Junius Rusticus and Apollonius. At 12 years of age, he 
avowed himself a follower of Zeno ; and stoicism became to 
him — the last great representative of the sect, a matter of 
conscience and religion. Hence his feeling of hostility to 
the professors of the young and vigorous system which was 
soon to supplant it. The fastidious pride of the Roman 
philosopher could not brook the simple creed of the Chris- 
tian. To live for the state at the sacrifice of every passion 
and interest, was the fundamental rule of life to Aurelius. 
When, therefore, he found the Christians withdrawing on 
religious grounds from the duties of the public service, he 
had an excuse for treating them with cruelty. The result 
was that, on every occasion of military defeat, inundation, 
or pestilence, he yielded to the cries of the infuriated popu- 
lace, and crowds of Christian martyrs were hurled ' to the 
lions.' But, in spite of wholesale persecution, the true 
religion was steadily advancing in influence. Preeminent 
among the martyrs under Aurelius, were the great bishops 
Polycarp of Smyrna and Pothinus of Lyons, together with 
St. Justin, the philosopher and apologist. 



CHAPTER XXXVII. 



Commodus— Pertinax— Septimius Severus— Caracalla — 

Macrinus— Heliogabalus — Alexander Severus. 

a. d. 180-235. 

Commodus (a. d. 180-192), the unworthy son and suc- 
cessor of Aurelius, veiled for a season the most odious feat- 
ures of his character. An attempt on his life, in the third 
year of his government, gave him a pretext for indulging 
his cruel propensities. Secure in the protection of the pre- 
torians, and the favor of the populace, whom he was care- 



A. D. 180-192. COMMODUS. cjj 

ful to> attach to his person by largesses, he ill treated the 
senate, and ruled the city as a despot. His cruelties were 
especially felt by those who were immediately around his 
person. Neither the provinces nor the Christians suffered 
under him. He had stopped, in the beginning of his reign, 
the persecution sanctioned by his father; and the faithful 
enjoyed a long respite of 12 years under a prince from whose 
wanton cruelty the nobles and the rich had so much to bear. 
A conspiracy set on foot by Marcia, his favorite concubine, 
Electus his chamberlain, and Lsetus the prefect of the preto- 
rians, put an end to the life of this despicable tyrant. 

Pertinax (a. d. 193), a distinguished senator, was at 
once proposed by the conspirators as a successor to Commo- 
dus, and readily accepted by the pretorians, the senate, and 
the people. The new emperor at once repudiated the dela- 
tors, recalled the banished nobles, and took means both to 
restore the finances and to enforce the ancient discipline 
among the pretorians. This the latter would not endure ; 
and, at the end of three months, they slew him in his palace. 

The Empire offered for Sale. — After this outrage, 
the revolted pretorians shamelessly proceeded to offer the 
empire for sale to the highest bidder. Didius Julianus, a 
vain and wealthy senator, carried the prize by bestowing a 
donation of about $1,000 on each of the 12,000 pretorians. 
The senate and the city were forced to accept the upstart 
emperor. 

Septimius Severus and his Competitors (a. d. 193- 
197). — The shameful transaction just enacted at Rome, was 
learned with disgust by the legions on the frontiers. Three 
emperors were proclaimed at once : Niger, by the army of 
the Euphrates ; Albinus, by that of the Rhine ; and Septi- 
mius, by that of the Danube. The'se last troops seemed to 
have been under better discipline. Their commander, at 
least, was a man of greater boldness, energy, and activity 
than either of his competitors. 

Amusing Albinus with an offer of a participation in the 
imperial authority, he first rid himself of the weak Julianus, 
and punished the pretorians, whose force he remodelled and 
increased to 50,000 men. Leaving this strong and trusty 
garrison in the capital, he marched against Niger, who was 
defeated, taken, and slain. His next object was to destroy 
Albinus. This commander, little satisfied with the inferior 
qualification of Caesar allotted to him, assumed the title of 
49 



57 8 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVII. 

Augustus. Thereupon Severus had him declared a public 
enemy ; and with all possible speed advanced against him, 
to prevent his entrance into Italy. No difficulty of the roads 
stopped his march. He walked bare-headed at the head of 
his troops, disregarding snow and frosts, and both by words 
and actions transfused into the hearts of others his own ardor. 

The quarrel between the two rivals was decided near the 
city of Lyons, in Gaul. The hostile forces being not un- 
equally matched, the struggle was desperate, and the vic- 
tory for a long time doubtful. At last, Albinus was 
routed and perished (a. d. 197). Severus made a terrible 
use of his victory. He put to death all the leading partisans 
of his late rival. Forty senators, and many rich inhabitants 
of Gaulish or Spanish towns fell victims to his revenge. 

Fifth Persecution (a. d. 202-211). — The Christians, 
too, had much to suffer under this reign. At first, Severus 
merely permitted the magistrates to execute the former laws 
against the faithful. But, afterwards, he expressly authorized 
the persecution, which then became general, and for many 
years violently raged throughout the empire. In the single 
city of Lyons, there were reckoned 19,000 victims, exclusive 
of women and children. With them perished the holy 
bishop Irenoeus, a disciple of St. Polycarp. 

Despotism, Wars, and Death of Severus. — The rule 
of Severus was little less than a military despotism. Des- 
pising the feeble senate, he assumed both the legislative and 
the executive power ; and it is from this reign that the emperor 
began to be regarded by the jurisconsults as the source of all 
law. In other respects, however, his conduct and character 
were not undeserving of praise. Strict in the administration 
of the laws, careful to correct abuses, he watched his subor- 
dinates with strict impartiality. Under him, peace was 
maintained in the provinces; cities were repeopled, and 
roads repaired ; Rome abounded with provisions, and its in- 
habitants were satisfied. But the predominant characteris- 
tic of Severus was his activity and warlike spirit. Besides 
the exploits whereby he secured the imperial crown, he made 
two successful campaigns in the east, and by his victories 
won for himself the surname of Partitions Maximns. His 
last expedition was in North Britain, against the Caledoni- 
ans. Falling sick at Eboracum (York), he called to his dy- 
ing bed his two sons Caracalla and Geta, and left them, the 
empire to be possessed in common. With his last breath 



A. D. 2ii-2l8. CARACALLA— MAC&INUS. 



579 



he is said to have uttered the words: "I have seen all 
things, and all things are nothing ; I have nowhere found 
solid content and happiness." 

Caracalla (a. d. 211-217) began by the murder of his 
brother Geta a reign of six years, the whole tenor of which 
was in keeping with such a beginning. He seems to have 
been allowed to prolong his course of debaucheries, cruelties, 
and rapines, only by a constant change of residence. He was 
killed, at last, on the borders of Syria, at the instigation of 
Macrinus, prefect of the pretorian guard, who found that his 
own life was in danger from the tyrant. Under Caracalla, 
the citizenship of Rome was conferred on all freemen 
throughout the empire. 

Macrinus (a. d. 217-218), though an African, and a man 
of low birth, experienced little difficulty in obtaining the 
place of Caracalla. But ,his efforts to restore military disci- 
pline, and reduce the emoluments of the legionaries, soon 
earned him the hatred of the soldiers. A revolt broke out 
among some troops stationed at Emesa, in Syria, who put 
forward as emperor young Bassianus, a grand-nephew to 
Severus. Bassianus was then discharging the function of the 
priesthood of the sun, at Emesa. The beauty of his person 
and his apparent resemblance to Caracalla, whose son he 
was even reported to be, gained him the hearts of the garri- 
son. The troops in other quarters equally espoused his 
cause. Macrinus, who was then at Antioch, acted with 
irresolution. The revolt spread; and, when he marched 
against the rebels, he was defeated and slain. The accept- 
ance by the children of Mars and Ouirinus, of a Syrian priest 
of the sun, as their next chief, prince, and supreme pontiff, is 
a phenomenon which can hardly be understood, except by 
casting a retrospective glance at the changes wrought since 
the days of Augustus. 

Changes political and religious, since Augustus. 
— At his accession, Augustus found three great powers in 
the state — the senate, the people, and the army. From each 
of these he professed to derive his authority, as prince of the 
senate, tribune of the people, and commander of the army. 
This system of government inaugurated by the first emperor, 
was apparently kept up by his successors. But, before long, 
the army became, in reality, the only power in the state. And 
that army consisted now, not of true Romans nor even of 
Italians, but of provincials and barbarians — utter strangers 



S 8o ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVII. 

to the religious sentiments fostered by Numa. Of the popu- 
lation of Rome itself, a large proportion was made up of 
provincial residents, who felt as little as the army for the 
old worship ; and of the two classes — the noble and the popu- 
lace, which formed the true Roman element, the former had 
lost all influence ; the latter, provided they were fed and 
amused, were ready to acquiesce in anything. Nor should 
we forget that much of the old Roman exclusiveness had 
vanished. Not only had the citizenship of Rome been 
extended to all freemen throughout the provinces, but the 
current of religious thought also had been flowing in an 
ever-widening channel. The gods of Greece and Egypt had 
been admitted into the Roman pantheon. The Gaulish 
deities Taranis and Hesus were identified with Jupiter and 
Mars. The Jewish religion was recognized ; and Christian- 
ity, though never authorized and often persecuted, was daily 
becoming better known. Under these circumstances the 
Romans were not altogether unprepared for the rule of the 
Oriental youth, who, ignorant alike of their ideas and 
manners, transferred his superstitious cult and his effem- 
inate dress, unchanged, from Emesa to the city of 
Augustus. 

Heliogabalus a. d. 218-222), after his elevation to the 
empire, continued to wear his priestly dress even at Rome, 
and led the same life of superstition and effeminacy as before. 
In his palace, lust and licentiousness reigned supreme. To 
counteract the disgust occasioned by such conduct, he was 
persuaded to adopt his cousin Alexander, a youth of better 
promise, as his son and colleague in the empire. This step, 
however, did not save him. Soon the pretorians put an end 
to this despicable rule by assassination. 

Character and Government of Alexander Se- 
VERUS (a. d. 222-235). — An inclination to virtue, fostered by 
an excellent education,* made Alexander Severus a most 
amiable prince. Justice, goodness, and generosity, were his 
favorite virtues. The maxim, "Do unto others what you 
would have them do to you," he caused to be engraved on 
the walls of his palace, and made the rule of his conduct. He 
frequently paid homage to Our Savior, whose image he kept 
in his chapel, together with those of Abraham, Orpheus, and 
other signal benefactors of humanity. 

*His mother, Mammsea, is supposed to have been a Christian ; 
and he, for some time, had Origen for his instructor, at Antioch. 



A. D. 222-235. ALEXANDER SEVERUS. 58 1 

Aided by excellent counsellors,* he applied with earnest- 
ness and perseverance to the task of reforming the govern- 
ment and correcting abuses. Iniquitous judges and bad 
officers were dismissed. The senate was purified. They 
alone obtained public employment, who were decidedly held 
in esteem. Nor did ties of consanguinity or friendship shel- 
ter the offenders. A certain Vetronius Turinus, who fre- 
quently approached the emperor, accepted bribes, as if 
imperial favors were dispensed through his means : this he 
called selling smoke. Alexander ordered him to be tied to 
a post, about which a fire was made of green wood, until he 
was suffocated, while a herald kept on repeating aloud, 
" Behold the seller of smoke punished with smoke." 

Rise of the Second Persian Empire (a. d. 226). — 
Repeated struggles with Rome and internal feuds had much 
weakened the Parthian monarchy. A successful revolt of 
Hyrcania had lately made this weakness evident to all. 
Thereupon Artaxerxes; son of Sassan and prince of Persia, 
resolved to strike a blow for the independence of his country. 
Three successful battles not only freed Persia from the 
Parthian yoke, but at once raised her to the commanding 
position lately held by her oppressor, and Artaxerxes now 
claimed the possession of Asia as far as the ^Egean and the 
Propontis. In one campaign, his troops overran and occu- 
pied the whole of Mesopotamia (229). But, soon, the pres- 
ence of Alexander Severus, who invaded his territories with 
three armies, made Artaxerxes sensible both of the Roman 
power and of his own inferiority. A treaty was concluded 
(232), which fixed, as the territorial limits between Rome, 
and Persia, the very boundaries which previously divided the 
imperial possessions from the dominions of the Arsacidse. 
Henceforth, until the rise of the Arabian empire, it is no 
longer Parthia, but Persia, that stands as the great antagon- 
ist of Rome in the east. 

Death of Alexander Severus (a. d. 235). — From 
his expedition against Persia, Alexander proceeded straight 
to the Danube and the Rhine, to resist the Sarmatians and 
the Germans. The legions in those parts, had long been 
accustomed to disorder and licentiousness. Before leading 
them to the enemy, the young emperor undertook to restore 
strict discipline among them. This they would not endure. 

* Among these, Dion Cassius deserves a special mention. Of his 
great Roman History in 80 books, only fragments remain. 



5 8 2 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVIII. 

By the intrigues of the Thracian Maximin, one of the impe- 
rial officers, a mutiny broke out, and Alexander was slain in 
his tent. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII. 

Advance of the Barbarians. — Rapid Succession of Emper- 
ors. — a. d. 235-284, 

The Franks, Allemanni, and Goths. — The increas- 
ing activity of the barbarians is the chief feature of this period. 
About the time at which we are now arrived, three distinct 
confederations of German tribes began to force their way 
into the Roman provinces. The Chauci, the Chatti, and the 
Cherusci, united under the common designation of the Franks, 
at length overcame the resistance of the legions on the 
Lower Rhine, and carried their devastations through the 
whole extent of Gaul. Thence they passed into Spain ; and, 
seizing the ships in the harbors, traversed the Mediterranean 
to its most distant shores. The Frankish conquests, how- 
ever, were not permanent ; and, after the storm was passed, 
the Roman power was reestablished within its ancient limits. 

On the Upper Rhine and the head-waters of the Danube, 
in the countries now known as Baden, Bavaria, and Bohemia, 
four important tribes — the Suevi, the Boii, the Marcomanni, 
and the Quadi — were banded together under the title of 
Allemanni. After a protracted struggle with the garrisons 
of Rhaetia and Pannonia, the Allemanni, in A. D. 272, burst 
the barrier of the Alps, and spread desolation over Northern 
Italy as far as Ravenna. The invaders, it is true, failed to 
acquire any firm footing, and yielded to the enervating 
effect of the soft Italian climate ; but the empire was made 
painfully sensible of its weakness, and even Rome itself was 
seen to lie almost at the mercy of the barbarians. 

The Goths, who were to be among the chief instruments 
of her fall, made their appearance also at this period, on the 
Lower Danube, and that river proved no effective barrier to 
their progress. They were daring navigators, who did not 
fear to traverse the broad and stormy Euxine. They ravaged 
the coast of Asia Minor ; they sacked the rich cities of Tra- 



A. D. 235-251. MAXIMIN I TO JDECIUS. 583 

pezus, Cyzicus, and Nicomedia ; at last, they penetrated the 
Hellespont, and carried the terror of their name into Greece 
and the islands of the JEgean, and as far even as the southern 
extremity of the Italian peninsula. 

'Maximin 1 (a. d. 235-238)— 6th Persecution. — As it 
was not known, at the time of Alexander's death, that Max- 
imin was its chief promoter, the army, disregarding his 
Gothic extraction and considering only his courage, saluted 
him emperor. Of a gigantic stature and proportionate bod- 
ily strength, Maximin was also an excellent commander. 
Many were the victories he gained over the Germans, Dacians, 
and Sarmatians. But he shed no less blood, throughout the 
empire, by his cruel persecution of the Christians, and by 
putting to death a number of eminent personages. 

The senate, deeply resenting the usurpation and tyranny 
of Maximin, first opposed to him two members of the noble 
house of the Gordians ; and, after their death, set up Papianus 
and Balbinus with a third Gordian. The soldiers soon mur- 
dered Papianus and Balbinus ; and Maximin, who was then 
besieging Aquileia, having also been dispatched by his own 
troops, young Gordian alone remained as sole emperor. 

Gordian hi (a. d. 238-224). — Under the able adminis- 
tration of Misitheus, the reign of Gordian was prosperous. 
The young prince had the honor of repelling in person an 
inroad of the Persians, who, under king Sapor I, had invaded 
Syria. But, shortly afterwards, he was slain, at the instiga- 
tion of Philip, the prefect of his guards, who reigned in his 
place* 

Philip (a. d. 244-249), an Arabian, governed with pru- 
dence the empire which he had acquired by crime. He was 
killed in battle, whilst endeavoring to repress the revolt of 
Decius, one of his generals. 

Decius (a. d. 259-251) — 7th Persecution. — Decius, a 
scion of the old plebeian house which had produced historic 
examples of patriotic devotion, was persuaded that Rome 
could only be saved by stern recurrence to the principles of 
true Roman policy. Whilst, therefore, he was drilling and 
disciplining the troops wherewith he proposed to resist a 
threatened invasion of the Goths, he ordered that the gods of 
Rome should be propitiated by vows and sacrifices, and 
insisted that the Christians should join in these acts of wor- 
ship, or perish as public enemies. A persecution ensued, 
sharper and more widely extended than any had hitherto been. 



584 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVlII. 

Leaving Valerian at Rome, in the capacity of censor, 
Decius set out for the frontiers ; and, during three campaigns, 
strenuously impeded the progress of the invaders. At last, 
he suffered himself to be entangled in marshy places, was 
entirely defeated, and perished with his son on the field of 
battle. 

GALLUS (A. D. 251-253) AND ^EMILIAN (A. D. 253). — 

Gallus, a lieutenant of Decius, was proclaimed emperor. 
Having consented to purchase peace from the barbarians by 
the stipulation of an annual tribute, he displeased all parties. 
The soldiers of the Danubian army murdered him ; and 
TEmilian, one of the officers, took his place. Against this 
intruder, the censor Valerian, whom the senate had made 
emperor, now led the army of the Rhine ; and ^Emilian 
was assassinated by his own troops. 

Valerian (253-260) was a venerable senator, who had 
distinguished himself in inferior employments. He bore his 
new dignity with grace and moderation. But he was incapa- 
ble of coping with the difficulties which beset his government. 
Under him, the Franks and the Goths were but imperfectly 
held in check ; and, when, in the 7th year of his reign, he 
attempted to reconquer Mesopotamia and other provinces 
lately subjugated by Sapor, he suffered a signal defeat, was 
captured, and treated with the utmost indignity. Sapor, it is 
said, used his captive's back as a footstool to mount his 
horse or to enter his chariot, and forced the unhappy man to 
run by his side, though loaded with chains. After nine years 
of such degradation, Valerian died; and his skin, tanned and 
painted purple, was suspended in a temple. 

8th Persecution (a. d 257-260). — Such was God's 
judgment upon a prince, who, contrary to his own inclina- 
tion, had been a persecutor of the faithful. Though natur- 
ally kind, superstition and evil advice induced him to order 
the 8th general persecution. It lasted over three years and 
was extremely violent. St. Cyprian, bishop of Carthage, and 
the deacon St. Lawrence, were among its most illustrious 
victims. 

Gallienus (a. d. 260-268), the son and successor of 
Valerian, an indolent and careless prince, wholly immersed 
iii pleasures, made no attempt either to liberate his father 
from captivity, or to retrieve the honor of the Roman arms. 
During his reign, 19 pretenders to the imperial crown — fan- 
cifully called by Roman writers the Thirty Tyrants — rose in 



A. t>. 268-275. CLAUDIUS it TO AURELIAN. cgc 

various parts, and at different times. But, one after another, 
they perished by the hands of their own troops, or by the 
arms of the emperor's lieutenants. The Syrian Odenathus 
aione was acknowledged and treated by Gallienus as his 
colleague. In due course, Gallienus met with a violent death. 
Before expiring he nominated for his successor Claudius, a 
man of courage and ability, though of mean birth and foreign 
extraction. 

Claudius ii (a. d. 268-270).— A happy union of moral, 
civil, and military acquirements might have raised Claudius 
to an equality with the most celebrated among his prede- 
cessors, had time been allowed him for the display of his 
princely virtues. As it was, this excellent prince reigned just 
long enough to destroy an army of 300,000 Goths, in Msesia. 
The victory, one of the greatest ever gained by Rome, was 
followed by the destruction of a Gothic fleet, which, loaded 
with booty, was going to join the land army on the Macedo- 
nian coast, but fell in with the victorious Romans, and was 
easily overcome. Claudius died of the plague at Sirmium, 
on the Danube. Aurelian, the son of an Illyrian peasant, 
but one of the best captains of the age, was at once appointed 
to succeed him on the throne. 

Aurelian (a. d. 270-275) defeats Zenobia.— Aurelian 
began his reign by inflicting fresh defeats on the Goths, but 
prudently withdrew the outposts of the empire from the' 
northern bank of the Danube. He then turned his attention 
to a rival power which had recently risen in the east. 
Zenobia, the relict of Odenathus, a woman of distinguished 
abilities and superior acquirements, had, after the death of her 
husband, retained the territories allotted to him by Gallienus. 
To these she added other provinces, which she detached 
from the empire ; and, guided by the counsels of the philoso- 
pher Longinus, governed her extensive monarchy for five 
years with discretion and success. It was against her that 
Aurelian now directed all his efforts. 

On his way to the east, he was obliged to fight against 
numerous bodies of barbarians, who pillaged the country. In 
Asia Minor, his progress was delayed by the resistance of 
some towns, which had espoused the cause of Zenobia. 
Tyana, in particular, resisted with such vigor, that Aurelian 
swore, in his anger, ' not to leave a dog alive ' in the captured 
city. After it was stormed, the troops, remembering this 
threat, prepared to carry it into execution. But Aurelian 



586 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXVIII. 

disappointed their ferocity. " Kill, if you will, all the dogs," 
he said ; " but harm none of the inhabitants." 

In the meantime, Zenobia, at the head of a large army, 
advanced to meet the Romans. After two actions near 
Antioch, and a third near Emesa, the result of which was 
unfavorable to her cause, unable to keep the field any longer, 
she took refuge within the walls of her well-fortified capital. 
When provisions began to fail, she secretly quitted the 
town, to go and implore the aid of the Persians. The 
emperor, apprised of her movements, sent a detachment of 
cavalry, which overtook and brought her back a prisoner. 
Her capture led to the surrender of Palmyra. The inhabi- 
tants were generously treated. When, however, on the 
departure of Aurelian, they rose upon the Roman garrison, 
the emperor returned, put them all to the sword, and 
destroyed their beautiful city. Bound with fetters of gold, 
Zenobia was led to Rome, to grace her conqueror's triumph. 
Her life was spared, and for many years she lived in dignity 
and honor at Hadrian's villa, near Tibur. 

Government and Death of Aurelian.— Aurelian 
recovered likewise Gaul and other western provinces, which, 
from the time of Gallienus, had either been occupied by bar- 
barians, or formed into separate states. Having thus restored 
the ancient limits of the empire, he set about remedying the 
•evils of the government. But his inflexible rigor raised him 
many enemies. His own secretary, fearful of punish- 
ment, anticipated the vengeance of his dread master. He 
drew up in the emperor's handwriting, a proscription list 
containing the names of the principal officers of the army. 
These, not suspecting the forgery, dispatched Aurelian with 
their swords (a. d. 275). 

Ninth Persecution (a. d. 274). — Aurelian at first 
treated the Christians, as he did his other subjects, according 
to the laws of equity. But afterwards, through a desire of 
gaining the popular favor, he persecuted them as enemies of 
the gods. Happily his cruel edict had not reached the 
remoter provinces before his death. Still his known inten- 
tion was the occasion of many martyrdoms, especially in 
Gaul and at Rome. 

The Wall of Aurelian. — One substantial monument 
of Aurelian's short reign, is the existing wall of Rome, erected 
by him as a defence against the Alemanni, who had pene- 
trated into the heart of Italy. The enclosure of Servius had 



A. D. 275-284. TACITUS TO CARINUS, cgy 

long been outgrown. The new one, including all the suburbs 
with probably much vacant space, comprised an area at 
least thrice equal to the old. 

Orleans, in Gaul, built on the foundation of the ancient 
Genabum, was another of Aurelian's works. It was 
designed as a check upon the encroachments of the Franks 
and Alemanni. In its name — the city of Aiirelian, is still 
perpetuated that of its founder. 

Tacitus (a. d. 275-276). — In such respect was Aurelian 
held by the legions, that they consented to wait more than six 
months for the nomination of his successor by the senate. 
Tacitus, who was at last selected by that body, was a man of 
birth and good character. Though his great age rendered 
him incapable of enduring the fatigues of war, he undertook 
to lead an expedition against the Scythian Alani, but sank 
under the hardships of his first campaign. 

Probus (a. d. 276-282), whom the eastern legions now 
raised to the supreme command, was peculiarly fitted by his 
bravery and hardy virtues, for the difficult times in which he 
lived. The empire was attacked on all sides by the barba- 
rians. The new emperor, during his short reign of six years, 
drove them all back beyond the frontiers. The Germans 
were the first to feel the invincible strength of his arm. He 
next overthrew the Goths, and meditated a Persian expedi- 
tion, when his career'was cut short by assassination. Probus 
enforced strict discipline among the troops. Not to let them 
remain idle, he subjected them to wholesome labors, as the 
planting of vineyards and the draining of marshes. Some 
soldiers thus employed near Sirmium, mutinied, and slew 
him. His loss was seriously felt throughout the empire. 
During his brief government, he had built or restored 70 
cities, and secured general prosperity. 

Carus (a. d, 282-283), whom the soldiers saluted 
emperor on the death of Probus, was also worthy of the 
imperial diadem. He overthrew the Sarmatians in a great 
battle, and penetrated into the very heart of the Persian 
empire ; but, during the last expedition, was found dead in 
his tent, near the river Tigris. 

Carinus and Numerian (a. d. 283-284), sons of Carus, 
succeeded their father on the throne. Numerian, who was 
with the army, perished, while leading the legions home- 
ward. Thereupon the officers proclaimed one of themselves 
emperor. The new chief, Diocletian, a native of Dalmatia, 



588 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIX. 

who had risen from the lowest ranks by the sheer force of 
merit, was soon acknowledged by all the troops in the east. 
Carinus, however, led against him the forces of the west, and 
displayed high military talents in more than one victorious 
engagement. But the dagger of an assassin, by removing 
him, soon left Diocletian undisturbed master of the empire. 



CHAPTER XXXIX. 



Diocletian and Maximian — Constantius Chlokus and 
Galerius. — a. d. 284-311. 

Scheme of Diocletian to knit the Empire. — The 
power of selecting the chief of the state, supposed to reside 
in the senate, had practically been usurped by the soldiers, 
so that the empire might, at any moment, be torn asunder 
into as many kingdoms as there were armies. In order to avert 
this danger and put an effective check upon the ambition of 
his officers, Diocletian resolved to associate with himself other 
chiefs bound to him by family ties or otherwise, each of whom 
should watch over a separate portion of the empire, and 
combine with the rest in maintaining their common interest. 
This arrangement would, moreover, enable the government 
to repel more easily the attacks of the barbarians. 

Two Augusti and Two Caesars. — The first step taken 
by Diocletian toward the accomplishment of his design was 
to choose for his colleague Maximian, surnamed Hercules, 
whom he invested with the title of Augustus (a. d. 286). To 
Maximian he assigned the west ; the east he reserved to him- 
self. But, finding the burden of government still too heavy 
for their efforts, he further created (a. d. 292) two Caesars — 
the one, Galerius, to share with him the empire of the east, 
the other, Constantius Chlorus, to divide the west with Maxi- 
mian. From Nicomedia, his capital, Diocletian ruled over 
Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. His Caesar, Galerius, who 
resided at Sirmium, governed the Danubian and Macedo- 
nian provinces. Maximian, with his capital at Milan, reigned 
over Italy, Africa, and the adjacent island. Finally Spain, 
Gaul, and Great Britain, were allotted to Constantius with 



A. D. 303-313. TENTH PERSECUTION. 5S9 

TreVes,as his usual place of residence, whence he could more 
effectually protect the Rhenish frontier. 

Under the prudent direction of Diocletian, whose supremacy 
was iully acknowledged, the Caesars, acting with energy and 
success, reestablished peace in the empire, and repelled the 
barbarians at all points. Galerius humbled the Persians; 
Constantius drove the Allemanni from Gaul, and in Britain 
put down the pretenders Carausius and Allectus. 

Tenth Persecution (a. d. 303-313). — Diocletian had 
hitherto reigned with glory, and given proof of great admin- 
istrative ability. P>ut, in A. D. 303, he allowed himself to be 
persuaded by Galerius to issue edicts for a general persecu- 
tion of the Christians. It was the most violent and bloody 
that the Church ever suffered. Such was the quantity of 
Christian blood spilt by the persecutors, that they boasted of 
having extirpated Christianity. But the Church came forth 
from the fiery ordeal, as strong as ever. Nor was chastise- 
ment slow to overtake the persecutors. 

Chastisement of the Persecutors. — Tortured by 
remorse, enfeebled in mind and body, Diocletian was com- 
pelled by Galerius (a. d. 305) to abdicate the imperial power. 
He retired to Salona, his native place, where he lived 8 )^ears 
longer, occupying himself in the culture of a small garden. 
But life became burdensome to him ; he could neither eat 
nor sleep. At last, excessive grief and starvation, and per- 
haps poison, carried him off in the 68th year of his age. 

The fate of Maximian was not less wretched. He together 
with Diocletian had been compelled to resign the purple. 
But, displeased with a private station, he tried two or three 
times to resume the sovereign power, and even to murder his 
son-in-law, Constantine, whose throne he coveted. Being 
foiled in this attempt, he was peremptorily ordered to put an 
end to his own existence (a. d. 210). The justice of God 
was still more visible in the case of Galerius, the real author 
of the persecution. He was attacked with a frightful disease 
— the same that had once afflicted Antiochus and Herod 
Agrippa. An ulcer corroded and laid open his very bowels. 
His body became a mass of corruption, the stench of which 
infected not only his palace, but also the whole neighbor- 
hood. His pains were so acute as to wring from him the 
most agonizing cries, and left him no rest till the disease 
carried him off, A. D. 311. 

Constantius Chlorus, holding only a subordinate posi- 



59° 



ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XXXIX. 



tion in the empire, was not able to prevent all deeds of 
violence in the provinces over which he ruled. But he 
himself never tormented the faithful. On receiving the 
bloody edicts, he feigned indeed a willingness to execute 
them. Assembling the Christians of his household, he 
requested them to comply or give up their employment. 
But those who chose to renounce their religion, he at once 
dismissed from his service, saying that traitors to God would 
be so likewise to their prince. To the others he continued 
his favor. 

CONSTANTINE AT THE COURT OF GALERIUS. — Constail- 

tine, the eldest son of Constantius, had been reared at the 
court of Diocletian, who kept him near his person as a 
hostage for his father's fidelity. When Galerius succeeded 
Diocletian, being jealous of the young prince, he not only 
detained him at Nicomedia, but exposed his life to a thou- 
sand dangers. Constantius, informed of this, most urgently 
solicited the return of his son. Galerius pretended to con- 
sent, but always found fresh pretexts for delay. At length, 
Constantine started without the knowledge of the emperor, 
and travelled with the utmost speed. Galerius, transported 
with rage, gave orders for his pursuit ; but the fugitive was 
already beyond his reach. 

Constantine succeeds his Father as Caesar (a. d. 
306). — Constantine reached York in Britain, just in time 
to receive his father's last breath. The troops at once pro- 
claimed him emperor in their camp at York, and this nomi- 
nation was hailed with enthusiasm by all classes throughout 
the west. Galerius, however, insisted that Constantine 
should be content with the title of Caesar, and the fourth 
rank among the associated rulers of the empire. Constan- 
tine feigned to be satisfied, and for six years gave his whole 
attention to the administration of Britain, Spain, and Gaul, 
quelling the outbreak of the Caledonians, repelling the 
inroads of the German tribes, particularly of the Franks, 
protecting the Christians, easing the burden of taxation, in 
a word, showing himself from the very beginning of his 
government worthy to become the ruler of the Roman world. 

Burden of Imperial Taxation. — Taxation in various 
shapes — on the necessaries of life, as poll-tax and salt-tax, 
as custom dues at every port and tolls at every city gate — 
brought much of the wealth of the subjects into the imperial 
treasury. One aggravating feature of the system was, that, 



A. t». £1 1-337. CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 59 £ 

each community being held responsible for a fixed sum, the 
produce of its soil lay at the mercy of the tax-gatherer, and 
was constantly liable to be swept off to discharge the common 
debt. Oppressive as the burden of taxation was before, 
it had become heavier of late, in consequence of the 
establishment of four different imperial courts. For an 
increase of expense naturally led to a still further augmenta- 
tion of taxes, and every province suffered under new imposi- 
tions. Even Italy, which had always been favored in this 
particular, was now heavily burdened; and everywhere 
lands were abandoned and left uncultivated, because their 
owners could not pay the taxes. 

The Bagaud^e. — In addition to the evil of taxation, Gaul, 
during the last half-century, had suffered much from the 
incursions of the barbarians and from civil wars ; and the 
distress thus caused led to the insurrection of the Bagaudae, 
or rustic banditti. For several years, the country was over- 
run with troops of famished and frantic marauders, who 
attacked all property, and, in the case of Autun, sacked and 
destroyed one of the chief centres of Gaulish civilization. 
Happily, the wise rule of Chlorus and his son Constantine 
afforded some respite to the unfortunate inhabitants of Gaul. 



CHAPTER XL. 

Constantine the Great. — a. d. 311-337. 

Anarchy : Four Augusti.— -On the death of Galerius, 
four princes simultaneously assumed the title of Augustus — - 
Licinius and Maximin in the east, Constantine and Maxentius 
in the west. Licinius and Maximin were creatures of Gale- 
rius. Maxentius, son of Maximian, had been raised to the 
purple by the Roman senate. Affecting to consider himself 
heir of his father's dignity, he not only ruled over Italy and 
Africa, but claimed superiority over Constantine. This the 
latter would not brook, and war was declared between the 
two rivals. 

The Labarum. — The power of Maxentius was upheld by 
nearly 200,000 warriors. Constantine not only did not have 
half that number, but was forced to leave part of his men behind 



592 



ANCiEN'T ROME. Chapt. XL. 



to defend the frontiers of Gaul. In his great need, he bethought 
himself of the God of the Christians, and begged from him 
victory. His prayer was heard. At noonday, he saw, in the 
calm and cloudless sky, a figure of the cross, with the legend, 
By this Conquer ; and the ensuing night, Christ himself 
appeared to him, with the same sign, and directing him to 
have it placed on a banner, and, borne at the head of his 
troops in full assurance of victory.* On rising in the morn- 
ing, Constantine caused the sacred symbol to be emblazoned 
on the standard called Labarum^ so as to form at once a 
cross and the monogram of Christ in Greek letters.f 

Battle of the Milvian Bridge (313). — Encouraged 
by these marks of divine protection, Constantine advanced 
against Maxentius. He gained three brilliant victories — at 
Turin, at Verona, and lastly at the Milvian bridge, two miles 
from Rome, where Maxentius, after his defeat, was drowned 
in the Tiber. The victor, next day, was received with 
acclamations in the city, and speedily acknowledged emperor 
throughout the west. 

Edict of Milan (a. d. 383). — The new ruler introduced 
good order into the administration, revived the authority of 
the senate, and disbanded the pretorian guards. Without 
a moment's delay, he assured the Christians of his protection 
and favor; and some months later, A. D. 313, published the 
celebrated edict of Milan, which publicly granted the free 
exercise of the Christian religion. The faithful were at 
liberty to build new churches ; and they regained possession 
of those of which the persecution had deprived them. Their 
clergy were exempted from all imposts and public charges ; 
their bishops, obtaining the confidence of the sovereign, 
became men of influence, and were soon invested with the 

*The exact place or date of the apparition is not known, nor 
whether the motto was in Greek or in Latin. 

fThe labarum became the sacred standard of the empire, and 
was committed to a guard of 50 men. The original labarum con- 
sisted of a long spear surmounted by a crown of gold, and of a 
transverse rod from which hung a purple flag bearing the mono- 
gram of Christ emblazoned with gold and jewels. The spear also 
was overlaid with gold. Besides this — the labarum proper, others 
came into use, having the monogram fixed in gold on the top ofthe 
staff, or surmounting the eagles, whilst the banner was embroid- 
ered with the figure of Christ, or with those ofthe emperor and his 
children. The sacred monogram was likewise found displayed on 
the shields and helmets of the soldiers. It was also used privately, 
as well as publicly, engraved on gems and on small reliquaries. 



A. D. 3H-337. CONSTANT1NE THE GREAT. £93 

powers of civil judges, public authority being given to their 
decisions in all cases referred to them. Thus the 
triumph of Constantine was the triumph of the Church. 
From the battle at the Milvian bridge dates the speedy 
decline of idolatry, which, without being persecuted, tottered 
to its fall, so soon as it was left to its natural weakness. 

Licinius Emperor of the East (a. d. 313). — Constan- 
tine had accepted the proffered alliance of Licinius, had given 
him his daughter in marriage, and had caused him to set his 
seal to the edict of Milan. Bearing back this edict to the 
east and placarding it on the walls of Nicomedia, Licinius 
aroused the enthusiasm of the Christians, and with little 
difficulty crushed his rival Maximin, who after three defeats 
poisoned himself at Tarsus (a. d. 313). Licinius, however, 
was at heart a foe to Christianity. Nor was the friendship 
between him and Constantine lasting. Difficulties soon 
arose as to the extent of their respective jurisdiction. Two 
well-contested battles were fought, which led to an agree- 
ment whereby Illyricum, Macedonia, and Greece, with a 
part of Mcesia, were ceded to Constantine (a. d. 314). 

Reforms of Constantine. — During the nine years of 
peace which followed, Constantine was engaged in reorgan- 
izing his army and consolidating his vast dominions. He 
multiplied the number of the legions, but reduced their 
strength to 1500 men. He admitted slaves into the ranks, 
and generally selected barbarians for commanders. When, 
in the year 321, he enacted that no military exercises, no 
secular labor, no legal proceedings, except the ema7icipatio?i 
of a slave, be permitted on the 'day of the sun,' he gave 
general permission to the Christian soldiers to leave their 
quarters, in order to attend their religious services on that 
day. 

Constantine Sole Emperor (a. d. 323). — Whilst Con- 
stantine was thus engaged, Licinius, growing jealous of the 
favor with which his colleague was regarded by the Chris- 
tians, again provoked hostilities, and openly avowed himself 
the champion of the pagan gods. Henceforth, the contest 
was between idolatry and Christianity. A host of diviners 
and sorcerers accompanied the army ol Licinius, who marched 
at the head of 165,000 pagan soldiers to encounter his rival. 
Constantine assembled his forces in Greece to the number of 
130,000 men. The monogram of Christ was displayed upon 
his standard ; and, in the conflict which followed near Adrian- 



594 Ancient Rome. Chapt. xl. 

ople, he gave for his watchword • God our Savior.' The 
western army triumphed, despite its inferior numbers. Licin- 
ius was driven to seek refuge within the walls first of Byzan- 
tium, next of Chalcedon on the opposite shore. Unable to 
offer further resistance, he at last surrendered, leaving Con- 
stantine sole master of the whole Roman world (a. d. 323). 
Constantine and Christianity. — Freed from warfare, 
Constantine set himself to repair the evils of past disturb- 
ances. He enacted a variety of excellent laws in favor of 
poor laborers, of widows and orphans, of prisoners and 
slaves. He was particularly solicitous to make Christianity 
flourish. Nothing afforded him more pleasure than to learn 
of its daily progress. By an edict, he invited all his subjects 
to embrace the true faith. He even endeavored by letters to 
inspire Sapor 11, king of Persia, with sentiments favorable to 
Christianity ; and, not having succeeded in this, he granted 
an honorable asylum to those Persians whom persecution 
drove out of their country. 

Council of Nice (a. d. 325). — In fine, the zeal of Con- 
stantine for the true faith induced him to lend his most cor- 
dial cooperation for the assembling and celebrating of the 
first general council. He offered the city of Nice in Bithynia 
for its deliberations, sent letters of invitation with safe-con- 
duct to the bishops, and defrayed all their expenses. Not 
content with showing the most profound respect to the 318 
assembled Fathers, he employed his temporal authority in 
supporting their decisions. By him the heresiarch Arius 
was banished, with such of his adherents as refused to sub- 
scribe the Nicene Creed. 

Faults of Constantine. — Constantine, however, 
through excessive condescension for his sister Constantia, 
afterwards recalled the exiled Arians, and allowed himself to 
be influenced against the great St. Athanasius, their chief 
opponent. Deceived by an artful calumny, and believing 
his virtuous son Crispus guilty of an atrocious design, he 
had him put to death. From the date of that tragedy, he 
was never free from gloomy remorse. He roamed from 
city to city, fixing his court most commonly in Gaul, at 
Treves or Lyons, and seldom visiting Rome, until he deter- 
mined to erect a new capital for himself. 

Foundation of Constantinople (a. d. 330). — Constan- 
tine had marked the advantageous position of Byzantium, 
when he pursued Licinius within its walls. He therefore deter- 



A. D. 3* 1-337- CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 595 

mined to make it a second Rome, and the administrative 
centrcof his empire. To this end he required his nobles to 
settle there, and erect palaces for their families. He also 
created a new senate and a new corps of officials ; and, enrich- 
ing the new metropolis with the spoils of Asia, of Greece, of 
Rome itself, made it in a short time the ' Queen of cities.' 
Situated at the point of junction of two continents, the posi- 
tion of Constantinople was unrivalled ; its site, unsurpassed. 
Possessed of a vast and safe harbor, it saw the ships of both 
worlds lay at its feet the treasures of the universe. Easily 
defensible, it also afforded a basis for operations against the 
Persians and Goths, than which none better could have been 
found. Hence, whilst Rome early yielded to the barba- 
rians, the new capital stood as a second head to the empire, 
which was not cut off till a thousand years later. Nor was 
Constantinople simply the means of perpetuating the Roman 
power so far into modern times ; the transfer of the imperial 
throne thither facilitated the rise and consolidation of the 
temporal sovereignty of the Holy See. 

Character of Constantine the Great. — In a. d. 
335, Constantine celebrated with due magnificence, in his 
new metropolis, the thirtieth anniversary of his elevation to 
the purple. In the following year, while leading his army 
against the Persian king, Sapor 11, he died at Nicomedia. 
The splendor of his achievements has gained him the sur- 
name of c Great,' — a title which he shares with only two 
other heroes of ancient history, and which he better deserves 
than they. The changes effected under his auspices were 
of more value and importance to the world, than any 
achievements of Alexander or of Pompey. The establish- 
ment of Christianity by itself, and regarded merely as a 
political measure, entitles its author to imperishable praise ; 
and the victories of Constantine in the field, the extent of his 
dominion, and the firm grasp with which he held it, were all 
unsurpassed by any ancient sovereign. 



CHAPTER XLI. 



Constantius— Julian— Jovian — Valentinian and Valens. — 

a. d. 337-378. 
Constantine, Constantius, and Constans, the sons 
of Constantine the Great, divided the empire among them- 



59 6 ANCIENT ROME. Ciiapt. XLI. 

selves. Gaul, Britain, and Spain, were allotted to the oldest ; 
Italy, Illyria, and Africa, to the youngest ; and the provinces 
of the east to Constantius. Before long, Constantine and 
Constans quarrelled and fought. Their forces met at 
Aquileia (a. d. 340), when the defeat and death of Constan- 
tine left Constans master of the entire west. He took up 
his residence in Gaul, and led a life of indolent dissipation, 
till, being surprised by a mutiny of his soldiers, he was killed 
by their leader Magnentius (a. d. 350). The murderer 
assumed the purple; but, at the same time, the Illyrian 
legions set up an officer of their own, Vetranio, as his 
rival. 

Constantius Sole Emperor (a. d. 353-361). — Constan- 
tius heard at Edessa of this double revolt. Quickly retreat- 
ing from the Persian frontier, he hastened to confront 
Vetranio, Who, touched by a feeling of loyalty, submitted and 
was forgiven. This reconciliation was followed by a decisive 
battle with Magnentius at Mursa, in Pannonia. The usur- 
per was routed, and soon after perished miserably (a. d. 353^. 
Constantius a Promoter of Arianism. — Thus the 
whole empire was again united under one ruler. Aware 
that the burden was too heavy for his shoulders, Constan- 
tius conferred on his cousin Julian the title of Caesar, and 
entrusted him with the defence of the Rhenish frontier. He 
was thus free to devote all his attention to his favorite occu- 
pation, the promotion of Arianism. By his orders, the 
orthodox bishops were driven from their sees, imprisoned, 
banished, or compelled to subscribe ambiguous formulas, 
which might be made subservient to a confirmation of the 
heresy. But neither artifice nor violence could make Arian- 
ism prevail in the Church. The majority of both the pastors 
and the faithful persevered in the true faith. 

St. Athanasius and Pope Liberius. — The most illus- 
trious champion of the faith of Nice at this time, was St. 
Athanasius, patriarch of Alexandria. In him the orthodox 
belief was, as it were, impersonated, and against him the 
efforts of Arianism were chiefly directed. Even the great 
Constantine had allowed himself to be prejudiced against 
Athanasius, whom he banished (a. d. 336) to Treves, then 
the capital of Gaul. After the death of Constantine, the 
holy patriarch was by the eldest son of the latter restored to 
his see (a. d. 338), but was soon again subjected to fresh 
persecutions by Constantius, emperor of the east. He was even 



A. D. 361-363. JULIAN. 597 

deposed by a synod of Arian prelates ; and an edict was 
issued, commanding all the bishops of Christendom, on pain 
of banishment, to subscribe his condemnation. Pope Libe- 
rius, who manfully resisted the emperor's dictation, was ban 
ished to Thrace ; and, during his absence, Felix, late archdea- 
con of the Roman Church, was thrust into the see. The faithful 
then absented themselves from the churches. But when, 
after his victory over Magnentius, Constantius visited Rome, 
the women came in long procession to remonstrate with him 
for his sacrilegious conduct. Constantius tried to compro- 
mise, by declaring that Liberius and Felix should both be 
bishops of Rome conjointly. He delivered 'his decree in the 
circus. "Shall we have factions in the Church, as in the 
circus ? " exclaimed the indignant multitude. " One God, 
one Christ, one Bishop ! " was the universal cry. Liberius 
returned, resumed his throne, and was not again disturbed. 
As to Athanasius, though persecuted also by Julian and 
Valens, he proved superior to all the machinations of his 
enemies ; and. after his long and glorious administration of 
46 years, he died in peace, testifying with his last breath that 
the Christ is consubstaniial with the Father (a. d. 373). 

Julian's Revolt (a. d. 361). — Julian's administration of 
Gaul was eminently successful. He repelled the numerous 
hordes of Allemanni and Franks that had invaded the coun- 
try ; he strengthened the Rhenish frontier ; he enlarged and 
beautified Lutetia, the modern Paris, which he made his 
usual residence ; he promoted, in different ways, the general 
prosperity of the country. Constantius became jealous of 
the growing reputation of the young Caesar, and, being 
attacked by the Persians, made this a pretext for demanding 
four of his legions. The men refused to be detached from 
the command of their favorite captain, and proclaimed Julian 
emperor. With real or feigned reluctance, he accepted the 
title, and advanced to Constantinople, where he was received 
with acclamation. Constantius was then at Antioch. On 
receiving these tidings, he started at once to confront the 
usurper. But, worn out with fatigue and anxiety, he died 
inCilicia; and Julian was everywhere acknowledged as his 
successor, 

Julian's Apostacy. — The beginning of the reign of 
Julian was remarkable for the zeal with which he redressed 
the abuses of the late government, and improved the civil 
and military administration. But he quickly threw off the 



5QS ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLI. 

professi(#i of Christianity, and reestablished with much cere- 
mony the ritual and the sacrifices of the pagan deities. 
Indeed, the restoration of paganism and the destruction of 
the Christian religion, were from his accession to the empire 
the chief object of his endeavors. This, however, he strove 
to effect more by artful than by violent measures. Whilst 
favors were lavished on sophists and magicians, the Chris- 
tians experienced nothing but contempt, vexation, and dis- 
grace. He openly violated to their prejudice the most 
common laws of equity — refusing them fair trial in the courts 
of justice, forbidding them to teach and to be taught in the 
schools, not admitting them to offices of trust, and at times 
secretly putting to death those whom he could not seduce 
into apostacy. 

Attempt to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem. — 
Julian desired, above all things, to falsify the prophecies of 
Daniel and our Lord concerning the permanent desolation of 
the temple of Jerusalem. He therefore resolved to raise it 
from its ruins, ordering his treasurers to furnish all the 
money necessary for the undertaking. Immense quantities 
of materials were accumulated. The old foundations were 
removed; and everything was in readiness to begin the 
laying of the new, when an earthquake destroyed the trenches, 
and whirlwinds scattered the lime and sand which had been 
prepared. Despite this hinderance, the masons set to work. 
But, at this moment, from the bowels of the earth there 
burst forth balls of fire, which dislodged the stones, melted 
the tools, and burned the workmen. Whenever the work 
was resumed, the same prodigy was repeated, and ceased 
only when the attempt was given up. 

Death of Julian (a. d. 363). — Sapor ii, a prince famous 
for his long reign of 70 years (310-380), as well as for his 
warlike dispositions and cruelties, had lately overrun the 
Roman province of Mesopotamia, and destroyed the impor- 
tant city of Amida. This and the many other insults offered 
the empire by its inveterate enemy, Julian resolved to 
avenge. With a powerful army he advanced to the walls of 
Ctesiphon, intending to besiege it with the aid of reinforce- 
ments expected from Armenia. Failing these, he proceeded 
further in pursuit of Sapor, who allured him into the interior 
of Persia, allowed the invaders to pass by his forces, and then 
assaulted them in the rear. The Romans repulsed his 
attack ; but had now to struggle against exhaustion and 



A. D. 363-383. JOVIAN TO GRATIAN. 



599 



famine. Their perils increased every day. To crown their 
misfortune, they lost the only man who could have repaired 
his own imprudence by the resources of his genius. In a 
battle fought on June 26th, 363, Julian was mortally wounded. 
Some authors relate that, before dying, he threw a handful of 
his blood towards heaven, exclaiming, " Thou hast conquered, 
O Galilean!" 

Jovian (a. d. 363-364) was chosen on the spot by the 
assembled officers, as the successor of Julian. He seems to 
have been a man of ability. Yet, so critical was the position 
of the army, that he found it necessary, in providing for its 
safety, to surrender the strong fortress of Nisibis, and with- 
draw the empire once more within the frontier line of the 
Euphrates. On his arrival at Antioch, he zealously labored 
to heal the wounds inflicted on Christianity by both Con- 
stantius and Julian. His excellent intentions and good 
qualities promised a prosperous reign. But, after a short 
rule of seven months,. he was found dead in his bed, having 
been suffocated by the fumes of charcoal, which was burning 
in his chamber. His death renewed the strifes and the 
sorrows of the Church in the east. 

Valentinian (a. d. 364-375) and Valens (a. d. 364- 
378). — A Pannonian officer of low origin but distinguished 
prowess, Valentinian, was chosen to fill the place of Jovian. 
The first act of the new ruler on reaching Constantinople, 
was to divide the empire with his brother Valens, taking the 
western provinces for his own share. The arrangement thus 
made for the third time, was final. The empires of the east 
and of the west were never again united. Valentinian gov- 
erned his dominions with vigor and firmness. Residing at 
Milan, Paris, Treves, or Rheims, he was always ready to 
repel the barbarians, and triumphed over them in every 
battle. 

Gratian (a. d. 375-383) ; St. Ambrose and Symma- 
chus. — Valentinian, at his death, left two sons. The elder, 
Gratian, was in 17th year ; the younger, who bore his father's 
name, and was the child of a second and favorite wife, was a 
mere infant. The early teaching of St. Ambrose, bishop of 
Milan, had impressed upon Gratian's mind the sacredness of 
his Christian profession. When the pontifical robes were 
offered to him in the name of the senate, he positively re- 
fused to wear them. He soon after sent order to remove 
the statue and altar of Victory which adorned the senate- 



6oo ANCIENT ROME. Ghapt. XLI. 

house,* and before which it was customary for the senators 
to burn a few grains of incense at the commencement of each 
sitting-. The Christian members naturally objected to be 
partakers or even witnesses of this idolatrous practice, and, 
trusting to the favor of Gratian and the support of Ambrose, 
they had urged the removal of the idol. The pagan senators, 
thoroughly alarmed, sent a deputation to the emperor at 
Milan, to plead against the enforcement of the order. Gratian 
would not listen to the request. When, however, the young 
Valentinian was associated in the empire, making this a pre- 
text for addressing the two rulers together with a second 
appeal, they deputed their great orator, Symmachus, to plead 
their cause ( a.d. 382). Leave was given to Symmachus to 
transmit his plea in writing, and to Ambrose was intrusted 
the duty of preparing a reply. The imperial decision, as 
might be expected, was in favor of Ambrose. The statue, 
which had been removed, was ordered not to be replaced ; 
and this decision was supported by the chief magistrates of 
the empire, some of whom took the opportunity of declaring 
themselves Christians. Another measure of Gratian against 
paganism, was the prohibition of legacies to the Vestal 
virgins. 

Valens a Favorer of Arianism. — While Gratian, 
• under the guidance of Ambrose, the greatest of Christian 
teachers of his day, showed himself the avowed champion of 
the true faith, his uncle Valens, who still governed the east, 
displayed little energy, except in protecting the Arians and 
cruelly persecuting the Catholics. Fortunately, the faith of 
the latter v/as defended by the illustrious doctors, St. Gregory 
Nazianzen, and his intimate friend St. Basil, archbishop of 
Csesarea, against whom all the emperor's efforts proved 
fruitless. 

Conversion of the Goths. — Two centuries before the 
time we have reached, the Gothic hordes had entered Europe 
in two divisions : the Visigoths (West Goths) had settled 
themselves in the regions bordering on the Danube and the 
Alps, while the Ostrogoths (East Goths) occupied the 

*The Curia Julia, erected by Caesar in the Roman forum, which 
was commonly used for the meetings of the senate throughout the 
imperial period. Constantine had caused the statue of Victory to 
be removed. But, on the accession of Julian, it had been promptly 
restored, and was now regarded by the pagans with more jealous 
honor than ever before, 



A. D. 364-378. VALENS. 6 OI 

Russian steppes from the Black Sea to the Baltic. After 
many conflicts, the two hordes coalesced into one great 
nation under king Hermanaric, whose empire extended over 
the regions of Hungary, Poland, and Courland. The Goths 
then changed from a nomadic to a settled and semi-civilized 
race, and such of their tribes as lived on the borders of the 
empire received their first instruction in Christianity from the 
captives whom they carried off beyond the Danube, in their 
wars with Decius, Valerian, and Gallienus. Among the 
Fathers present at the Nicene Council was Theophilus, 
{ bishop of the Goths.' His successor, as it seems, was 
Ulfilas (a. d. 312-381), who reduced the Gothic language to 
a written form * and composed that version of the scriptures 
which is the first great monument of the old Gothic language, 
or Maeso- Gothic. 

In the year 374, the Huns crossed the Volga and the Don, 
and began to press the Goths westward and southward. 
The latter yielded before their fierce assailants: and those 
of them who were pagans, retreated to the wilds of the Carpa- 
thian Mountains ; while the Christian people among them, 
to the number of 300,000 warriors, besides women and 
children, came down to the north bank of the Danube, and 
begged a refuge in the plains of Msesia. 

Defeat and Death of Valens (a. d. 378). — After 
much tergiversation and many ambiguous promises, the 
Roman officers stationed on the frontier, transported the 
women and children across the river, proposing to hold them 
as hostages for the peaceable behavior of the men. At 
length, the Goths, weary of long delay, and being in need of 
provisions, crossed the stream, and found that their wives 
had not been respected, and that many of their children had 
been sold into slavery. Exasperated by this outrage, they 
began to overrun the country, putting everything to fire 
and sword. Their commander -Fritigern, an able general, 
defeated the imperial lieutenants in several bloody battles. 

*By writing an Alphabet of 24 letters, based upon the Greek, 
which was adopted by all the Teutonic tribes, and is still in use as 
the German character, or 'black letter.' In b. c. 335, Ulfilas had 
led a large body of Goths across the Danube, to seek the protec- 
tion of Constantius. When, in 376, Fritigern asked from Valens a 
new home south of the same river, Ulfilas was employed to nego- 
tiate the treaty. Unfortunately he had embraced Arianism, and 
was but too docile an instrument of both Constantius and Valens 
in propagating that heterodox belief among his Gothic countrymen. 

15 



6o2 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLII. 

Valens then hastened from the east to confront the invaders. 
Without waiting for the arrival of his nephew Gratian, who, 
after gaining a great victory over the Germans, was coming 
to his assistance, the unwary prince gave battle to the Goths, 
near Adrianople, but suffered a complete overthrow and 
perished with most of his troops (a. d. 378). The Goths 
then extended their devastations all over Thrace and Mace- 
donia, till their career was arrested by the vigor and genius 
of Theodosius. 

The Visigoths embrace Arianism. — When the Visi- 
goths applied for lands to Valens, and the emperor promised 
them an asylum, he stipulated that they should embrace 
Arianism. They accepted the condition, and were baptized 
into the Arian form of Christianity. Thus early infected 
with heresy, those barbarians carried their heterodox belief 
throughout the various portions of the empire which they 
successively invaded and conquered. The prevalence of 
Arianism among them was, in addition to their devastations, 
a cause of cruel persecution of the Catholics. 



CHAPTER XLII. 

Theodosius the Great.— a. d. 378-395. 

Accession of Theodosius and Valentinian ii (a. d. 
378). — By the death of his uncle Valens, the whole burden 
of the government devolved on Gratian. Aware of his 
inability to cope with the difficulties of his situation, this 
young prince at once placed on the throne of Constantinople 
the ablest of his subjects, the great Theodosius. ^ At the 
same time, he yielded to his own brother, Valentinian 11, the 
sovereignty over Italy, Illyria, and Africa, reserving only 
Gaul, Britain, and Spain for himself. 

Victories of Theodosius. — The accession of Theodo- 
sius almost instantaneously changed the desperate state of 
affairs. The Goths were defeated. Most of them consented 
to settle quietly in Maesia and Pannonia; the rest were 
driven back beyond the frontiers. The Huns and Alans 
were kept in check ; and the Persians, awed by the genius 
of the new ruler, sued for peace. In a few years, the name 
of Theodosius was respected throughout the world. 



A. D. 37S-395. THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 6q^ 

Religious zeal of Theodosius. — Theodosius availed 
himself of the tranquillity which followed his victories, to 
enact laws conducive alike to the public welfare and to the 
moral improvement of individuals. He endeavored especially 
to promote the growth of piety and the speedy triumph of 
the orthodox faith. Arianism, not being able to obtain the 
least favor from him, rapidly dwindled into insignificance. 
The heresy of Macedonius against the divinity of the Holy 
Ghost, which followed, met in him a vigilant adversary. 
Under his patronage, the second general council was held at 
Constantinople, to condemn the new error (a. d. 3S1). The 
decrees of this august assembly were received as the oracles 
of God by the emperor, who gave them legal effect. Nor 
was his zeal satisfied, until the public worship oi idols dis- 
appeared from his dominions. 

Usurpation of Maximus (a. d. 3S3). — The example 
of Theodosius was at first faithfully imitated by Gratian. 
But gradually this young prince lost the esteem ot his sub- 
jects, by indulging in the pleasures of the chase to excess. 
and associating on terms of intimacy with the barbarian 
Alaric. Profiting by this circumstance, one of the imperial 
officers in Britain, Maximus, assumed the purple; and with 
the British legions crossed the Channel. The troops in Gaul 
refused to stand by Gratian, who tied southward, but was 
captured and slain at Lyons. 

DEFEAT of Maximus (a. p- 388! — From Treves, where 
he fixed his residence, Maximus silently made preparations 
to oppress Valentinian also; and, suddenly crossing the Alps 
at the head of an army, appeared at the gates of Milan (^ 
With difficulty Valentinian escaped to Aquileia, whence he 
sailed eastward to throw himself upon the protection 
o( Theodosius. The latter received the fugitive with open 
arms, induced him to renounce Atiauism, in which he had 
been raised by his mother Justiua, and matched with him 
against the usurper. One short campaign decided t '■ 
test. Theodosius triumphed ; and Maximus, hotlv pursued, 
was taken and killed at Aqnileia. Valentinian was re 1 

stated as emperor over all the provinces which obeyed his 

father and his brother. Rut Theodosius remained three 
sears in Italy, and was from that time the virtual ruler of the 

whole empire. 

Theodosius anp Kiaman (a, p. ;,s;\ -in the year 

which preceded the triumph of Theodosius over Maximus, 



6o4 ANCIENT ROME. . Chapt. XL11. 

a sedition broke out in Antioch, on occasion of a new and 
odious tax. The population, in their blind rage, threw down 
the statues of the emperor and empress, and dragged them 
through the streets. When Theodosius heard this, he resolved 
t© visit the offenders with exemplary punishment. Two 
commissioners were sent to investigate the outrage on the 
spot. They had orders to punish the guilty with death, yet 
consented to postpone the execution of the penalty, until the 
venerable bishop Flavian might reach Constantinople, and 
beg the emperor's forgiveness. On coming into the impe- 
rial presence, the aged prelate first remained at some distance, 
with his eyes cast down, and observing a mournful silence. 
The emperor then approached the bishop, and with strong 
but tender reproaches expatiated on the ingratitude of the 
people of Antioch. Flavian acknowledged both the enormity 
of the crime, and the justice of any punishment which might 
be inflicted ; but, at the same time, so extolled the advantages 
of clemency that Theodosius willingly granted forgiveness. 
The pardon, entire and unreserved, did infinite honor to the 
prince. Yet, within three years, he visited the guilt of 
another city, so as to bring on himself the solemn and well- 
merited rebuke of the great bishop Ambrose. 

Theodosius and Ambrose. — In a. d. 390, the populace 
of Thessalonica stoned their governor to death. Theodosius, 
thereupon, ordered a promiscuous massacre of the inhabitants, 
in which 7000 persons were put to the sword. Ambrose 
then notified the emperor by letter, that he could not, in 
consequence of this frightful abuse of authority, be admitted 
into the church, and stilll less to the participation of the 
sacred mysteries, till he should do full penance. Theodosius 
in spite of the warning, went as usual to worship at the Por- 
tian basilica ; but was met at the door by the bishop, who 
bade him withdraw as a man polluted by innocent blood. 
After spending eight months in penitential seclusion, Theo- 
dosius ventured, at Christmas, to present himself in the 
attitude of a suppliant to seek readmission to the church. 
Ambrose still required a practical fruit of repentance, in the 
form of an edict forbidding the execution of capital punish- 
ment, till thirty days after the sentence. The emperor cheer- 
fully acceded, and was admitted to communion. 

The Usurper Eugenius (a. d. 392-394). — Theodosius 
had scarcely returned to Constantinople, when a fresh revo- 
lution took place in the west. Young Valentinian, whom his 



A. D. 378-395. THEODOSIUS THE GREAT. 605 

instructions and examples had lately trained up to virtue, 
and who, under the guidance of St. Ambrose, gave bright 
hopes of a wise and prosperous government, was murdered 
by his Frankish general, Arbogastes. The barbarian, not 
caring to seize the prize of empire which lay ready to his 
hand, conferred the sovereignty on Eugenius, the gramma- 
rian and chief secretary of the late monarch. This man was 
the last emperor that professed himself a pagan. His acces- 
sion was the signal for an outburst of triumph, on the part of 
the old pagan party throughout Italy. The temples were 
reopened and the sacrifices renewed ; the pontiffs, augurs, and 
Vestal virgins, reappeared ; and the usurper prepared to 
meet the attack of Theodosius, under the protection of the 
image of Jupiter Tonans (the thunderer). 

Two years were spent by Theodosius in making adequate 
preparations to overthrow Eugenius and his supporters. The 
hostile armies met in the passes of the Julian Alps, thirty 
miles from Aquileia The number and discipline of the troops 
engaged, rendered the struggle which ensued most obstinate. 
It lasted two days, the first of which beheld a fearful havoc 
of the eastern soldiers. Their opponents, thinking themselves 
victors, spent the following night in merriment. Theodosius 
passed it in prayer. At the dawn of day, he again drew up 
his army, and inspiring his soldiers with his own confidence, 
led them to a decisive victory. Eugenius was taken and 
put to death. Arbogastes fell upon his own sword. At the 
instance of St. Ambrose, the pagans were spared the horrors 
of a persecution. But their religion was once more abased ; 
and their temples, sacrifices, endowments, and idols, were 
swept away. 

Theodosius associates his Sons with Himself 
(a. d. 395). — His late victory subjected all the west to Theo- 
dosius. This he confided to his younger son Honorius, who 
was but eleven years old, and gave him for his minister the 
brave Stilicho, a chief of the Vandals. His eldest son, Arca- 
dius, he associated with himself in the empire of the east. 
Though Theodosius was but fifty years of age, continual 
labors and hardships had exhausted his constitution. He 
survived his victory over Eugenius only a few months, and 
died at Milan, in the arms of St. Ambrose (Jan. 17th, 395). 

His Character. — From the Christians Theodosius re- 
ceived after his death the title of ' the Great,' an appellation 
he well deserved for his many illustrious achievements. He 



606 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLIII. 

restored the majesty of the empire ; conquered the Goths ; 
drove back the Huns and Sarmatians ; kept the Persians in 
constant awe ; overcame two powerful usurpers ; checked the 
Arian and Macedonian heresies ; almost completed the 
destruction of idolatry, without shedding a drop of blood ; 
and published a number of excellent laws, which place him 
far above the wisest legislators of antiquity. One of his 
edicts enjoined the release, on Easter day, of all prisoners 
who could be set at liberty without endangering the interest 
and good order of society. 

Theodosius was dignified in countenance and deportment, 
but withal cheerful, courteous, and affable. Free not only 
from gross vices, but even from ambition and vainglory, he 
undertook no war, except through necessity. His temper, 
which was naturally violent, he usually kept under control ; 
and, when he failed to do so, he repaired his fault in a manner 
which did him honor. Hence the unanimous verdict of 
ancient ecclesiastical writers, who proposed Theodosius as a 
model for Christian princes. 



CHAPTER XLIII. 

The Western Empire under Honorius.— a. d. 395-424. 

Stilicho defeats Alaric (a. d. 396-403). — No longer 
awed by the genius of Theodosius, the Goths of Maesia and 
Dacia quitted their settlements in A. d. 396, and, headed by 
Alaric, ravaged Illyria and Greece. Stilicho drove them 
back. But, soon reappearing, they burst into Lombardy 
and threatened Milan. Stilicho, who had gone to collect 
troops in Gaul, returned, twice defeated Alaric, and thrust 
him out of the peninsula (a. d. 403). On this occasion, 
Honorius celebrated a triumph — the last of the series, which 
has been grandly described by the pagan poet Claudius. 

Suppression w the Gladiatorial Shows (a.^ d. 
404). — Public combats between swordsmen, rude captives 
of foreign warfare, had long been a noted feature of the 
Roman triumph. After the conclusion of the Dacian war, 
the mild Trajan exhibited 5000 pairs of gladiators, who, 
during four months, fought, bled, and died for the entertain- 
ment of the people. The edicts enacted by Constantine 



A. D. 395-424, HONORIUS. 607 

and other Christian emperors against the barbarous practice, 
had not been effectual ; and Honorius, on the occasion of 
his triumph, scrupled not to gratify the Roman populace 
with their favorite, though bloody, entertainment. A monk, 
Telemachus by name, on hearing of it, hastened to Rome, 
for the purpose of putting an end to these detestable cruel- 
ties. Rushing through the crowd into the arena, he threw 
himself between the combatants stripped for the death- 
struggle. He was cut to pieces on the instant. But the 
spectators were smitten with compunction. The games 
were immediately suspended ; and the Christian sentiment 
being now strong enough for the government to interfere 
effectually, a stringent decree was issued,* prohibiting all 
gladiatorial shows for the future. 

Stilicho defeats Radag^esus (a. d. 406). — Within 
three years from the repulse of Alaric, a host of mingled 
barbarians — Suevi, Alemanni, Vandals, Alans — pushed west- 
ward by the Goths and Huns, and numbering perhaps 
300,000 warriors, advanced under Radagsesus as far as Fses- 
ulae, near Florence. Stilicho, after raising forces sufficient 
to cope with these new foes, surrounded and defeated them, 
slaying a multitude of them together with their chief, and 
selling the survivors into slavery. Two years later, Stilicho 
was himself put to death for treason. 

Gaul and Spain occupied by the Barbarians (a. d. 
406-409). — To save Rome and Italy, Stilicho had withdrawn 
from Gaul most of her defenders. That province, being 
thus left unprotected, was at once overrun by the barba- 
rians, and practically lost to the empire. Whilst the Alle- 
manni and Burgundians occupied the territories bordering 
on the Rhine, the Suevi, Alans, and Vandals for three years 
plundered the remainder, after which they went to Spain. 
Here they settled, the Suevi in the north, the Alans in the 
west, and the Vandals in the south, the eastern parts alone 
being left to the Romans. 

The Sack of Rome by Alaric (a. d. 410). — The death 
of Stilicho was followed by the reappearance of Alaric in 
Italy. At first, he -exacted from the Romans an enormous 
ransom")", which taxed their resources to the utmost (408). 

* By some the imperial decree is referred to the year 409. — See 
Alzog's History, by Pabisch and Byrne, Vol. I, 741. 

f Among its chief items are mentioned 5000 pounds of gold and 
30,000 of silver, 4000 silken robes and 30,000 pieces of scarlet 
cloth, 3000 pounds of pepper, etc. 



6o3 Ancient rome. cha^t. xlih. 

He then set up as emperor in the city one of his creatures, 
Attalus. This man, though an Arian, openly favored the 
pagan party. The Christians, too spirited to submit pas- 
sively to such a ruler, drove him out, when Alaric once 
more returned, and gave up the city to pillage. For six 
days, his greedy followers were allowed full license, and 
many doubtless were the deeds of violence perpetrated in 
that interval. The Christian churches, however, seem" to 
have been respected, and those who took sanctuary in them 
were unharmed. 

Final overthrow of the Pagan Religion. — The 
sack of Rome by the Goths was accepted by the Roman 
world as the judgment of God upon paganism, and the old 
religion never again reared its head. Indeed the faith of 
its adherents centred in the invincible might, the inviolable 
sanctity, and the eternity of the City of Rome herself. In 
their view, the glorious career of the Roman commonwealth 
had been due to the protecting favor of the gods. Of their 
city they had made a divinity, which they worshipped, and 
in which they implicitly trusted. With its fall, their creed 
was hopelessly shattered. They lost all heart and faith. 
The ancient superstitions, driven from the cities, now 
lingered only in fields among the ignorant peasantry — 
pagani, whence our English expression pagans. 

The Kingdom of the Visigoths. — Alaric quitted 
Rome at the end of twelve days, and led his plundering 
hordes through the centre and south of Italy, ravaging 
towns and villages, devastating estates, and setting free the 
slaves. Many Roman nobles were thus reduced to utter 
destitution ; many fled beyond sea. 

After the death of Alaric, his brother-in-law, Ataulphus, 
(Adolf), withdrawing from Italy, carved out for himself a 
kingdom which included the south of Gaul and the north 
of Spain. On the promise of a subsidy from Honorius, he 
consented to become a vassal of the emperor. The pro- 
vincials, on their part, who were now known as Romans, 
from having adopted the language and manners of Rome, 
willingly submitted to the rule of their new master, which 
was probably less heavy than the fiscal tyranny of the im- 
perial administration. 

Ravages of the Picts and Scots in Britain. — 
Already were Spain and Gaul all but lost to the empire. 
And now the same fate befell Britain also. The recall of 



A - 1>. 395-424- iiONORiuS. 609 

the legions, whose presence was deemed necessary else- 
where, left the country exposed to the inroads of the Picts 
and Scots. Some troops, indeed, were sent at times to 
assist the Britons in driving their foe. But so soon as they 
withdrew, the restless invaders renewed their depredations. 
Irish Inroads into Britain and Gaul. — Nor was 
it merely from the incursions of their northern neighbors 
that the Britons had to suffer. The Scots of Ireland are 
known to have made frequent descents upon the coast of 
southern Britain, even from the first century of the Chris- 
tian era. Agricola, who governed the British provinces in 
the reign of Domitian, is said to have retained near his per- 
son an Irish chieftain — probably captured during an inroad 
in Britain. Seneca, in his satire on Claudius, gives the name 
of Scots to the British Brigantes, thus implying that they 
originally came from Ireland. With the decline of the Ro- 
man power in Britain, the inroads of the Irish became more 
frequent and destructive. Nor did Gaul escape their rav- 
ages. Not to mention earlier instances, Nial of the 
Hostages led several expeditions into Gaul, in the last of 
which, A. D. 405, he was slain ; while his nephew and suc- 
cessor, Dathy, penetrated to the Alps, where a 'stroke of 
lightning arrested his progress, A. D. 428. It was in one 
of their inroads abroad, about the year 400, that the Irish 
brought to Erin the illustrious captive,* for whom Providence 
had reserved the glory of their conversion to the Christian 
faith. But Patrick was then a mere youth. After spending 
seven years in tending the flocks of his master Milcho, in 
the present county of Antrim, he escaped from captivity; 
and it was not till 432 that he returned to Ireland, clothed 
with the character and authority of a Christian bishop. 

* Patrick's mother also, Conchessa, the daughter of a Roman 
officer of Pannonian origin who was stationed on the Rhenish 
frontier, had been carried off in her youth by Frankish marauders. 
She converted both her captor and her captor's son, and marrying 
the latter, who is known to us under his Christian name of Cal- 
phurnius, and who enlisted in the Batavian legion, she followed 
him to Britain, and lived with him for some time in the fortress of 
Theodosia, the last Roman station in North Britain. Near by, in 
the neighborhood of what is now Dumbarton, Patrick was born 
about 373. Was he still in Britain at the time of his capture, or 
had he returned with his family to Gaul, is a matter of doubt. 
Potitus, the grandfather of Patrick, died a priest ; his father Cal- 
phurnius became a deacon ; but his most illustrious relative was 
his maternal uncle, the great St. Martin of Tours. 



6i6 ANCIENT ROME. ChApt. XLIV. 

Closing Years of Honorius. — The affairs of the em- 
pire, at the close of the reign of Honorius, assumed a less 
gloomy appearance. The barbarians were not yet ready 
for the repose of a settled life ; and, by purchasing the 
services of one tribe to employ them against another, the 
nominal sovereign of both, who ruled at Ravenna, was still 
able to prevent them from establishing permanent govern- 
ments of their own. Thus were several provinces rescued 
from barbaric yoke, and the progress of the invasion 
checked for some time longer. These happy results were 
chiefly due to the virtuous Constantius, who was both a 
skillful warrior and a great statesman. As a reward for his 
services, he received the title of Augustus, and the hand of 
Placidia, the emperor's sister. His son was adopted by 
Honorius, and succeeded this prince at Ravenna, as Valen- 
tinian in. 



CHAPTER XLIV. 
The Eastern Empire. — a. d. 395-475. 

Arcadius (a. d. 394-408). — The reign of Arcadius was 
considerably shorter than that of Honorius. Like his 
brother, want of resolution and capacity made him unfit to 
govern in those troubled times. He rather witnessed than 
directed the transactions of his reign. The ravages of 
the Huns in Thrace, and of the Isaurians in Asia Minor; 
the successive ascendency, at court, of Rufinus, Eutropius, 
and Gai'nas; the unjust treatment of St. Chrysostom, the 
illustrious archbishop of Constantinople, such were the 
principal events which marked the feeble rule of Arcadius. 
He was succeeded by his infant son, Theodosius 11 the 
Younger. 

Theodosius ii the Younger (a. d. 408-450).— During 
the minority of this prince, the government was first in the 
hands of the prefect Anthemius, an able minister ; and, after- 
wards, in those of the emperor's sister, the pious Pulcheria, 
who, at sixteen, showed enough vigor and capacity to pre- 
serve good order at home, and cause her power to be 
respected abroad. When war was renewed with the Per- 
sians, king Varanes y saw himself compelled to receive the 



A. D. 450-475. MARCIAN AND LEO I. 6ll 

terms dictated by her. Unfortunately, Theodosius allowed 
himself to be prejudiced against his noble sister. A scholar, 
and possessed of most of the virtues which adorn a private 
station, the weak and indolent emperor knew not how to 
govern, nor how to choose ministers worthy of his confi- 
dence. Under his rule, provinces were laid waste by the 
barbarians, and he could not otherwise protect himself 
against Attila than by paying him an annual tribute. 

Marcian (a. d. 450-457). — Theodosius n died at fifty, 
after a reign of 42 years. His sister Pulcheria then be- 
stowed, together with her hand, the imperial crown on Mar- 
cian, a brave and virtuous officer, whom merit had raised 
from the condition of a common soldier to a conspicuous 
rank both in the army and the state. Marcian at once res- 
cued the empire from the ignominy to which it had been 
reduced by the barbarians. When Attila claimed the tribute, 
the emperor's answer was, that, reserving gold for his friends, 
he had nothing but steeLforhis enemies. Towards his sub- 
jects he behaved as a father. He restored security and 
abundance. He secured the exact administration of justice, 
and diminished the taxes. But what chiefly engaged his 
attention was the cause of the true faith. Two opposite 
heresies Avere then desolating the Church — the Nestorian, 
which denied the unity of person in Christ ; and the Euty- 
chian, which confounded his two natures. The former had 
already been condemned in the council of Ephesus (b. c. 
431). Against the latter, by the authority of Pope St. Leo 
and through the care of Marcian, the council of Chalcedon 
was now held (a. d. 451). Besides renewing the condemna- 
tion of the Nestorian, it solemnly proscribed the Eutychian 
errors. 

Marcian's reign, which was unfortunately too short, has 
been called the golden age of the eastern empire. This 
excellent prince was not less distinguished for his domestic 
than for his public virtues. As to Pulcheria, she has merited 
by her holy life to have her name inscribed on the calendar 
of the saints. 

Leo 1, though not so talented as Marcian, was his worthy 
successor. He gained signal victories over the barbarians ; 
and, in general, maintained his dominions in that state of 
respectability in which they had been left by his predeces- 
sor. He died a. d. 475, just one year before the fall of the 
western empire. 



612 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLV. 

CHAPTER XLV. 

The Fall of the Western Empire.— a. d. 424-476. 

Accession of Valentinian hi (a. d. 424).— Honorius 
dying childless, the crown devolved on Valentinian in, a 
prince remembered for his effeminacy more than for any 
active participation in the important transactions of his 
reign. As he was only 6 years old at his accession, his 
mother Placidia assumed the regency, supported by two 
illustrious senators, the patrician Aetius, by birth a Scythian, 
and the consul Bonifacius, count of Africa. 

Rivalry of Aetius and Bonifacius. — Aetius, in his 
quality of patrician, ranked next to his imperial master. 
But he feared the influence of Bonifacius, his equal in 
military capacity, and his superior in moderation and dis- 
interestedness. To ruin the dangerous rival, Aetius secretly 
sent him word that Placidia, being bent on his destruction, 
was about to recall him to court ; and that, if he left Africa, 
his death was inevitable. At the same time, he assured 
Placidia that Bonifacius had conceived the design of render- 
ing himself independent in Africa, and that he ought to be 
recalled. 

The Vandals in Africa (a. d. 428). — Placidia, too 
credulous, followed the treacherous advice. Bonifacius, 
thinking his life in danger, refused to obey, raised troops, 
and called to his aid the Vandals of Spain. Soon, indeed, 
the imposture of Aetius was unmasked. Bonifacius returned 
to the allegiance of the empress ; but he could not expel the 
Vandals from Africa. Headed by the fierce Genseric, they 
overran the country with the rapidity of a torrent. Those 
rich provinces, whose inhabitants had by their corruption 
provoked the divine wrath, were soon deluged with blood. 
The Vandals established, on the ruins of the Roman power, 
the seat of their own domination, which lasted 106 years 
(A. D. 428-534). 

Death of Bonifacius (a. d. 432). — In the meantime, 
Placidia dared not punish the guilty, but too powerful patri- 
cian. But the favors she studiously heaped on Bonifacius, 
served only to increase the jealousy of Aetius. The two 
generals soon took the field, in support of their respective 
pretensions. Bonifacius was victorious ; but, in the contest, 
he received a wound of which he died shortly after. 



A. D. 424-455. VALENTINIAN III. 613 

Victories of Aetius. — Freed from his rival, Aetius now 
thought only of repairing the evils which his jealousy had 
occasioned. He defeated the Goths in the south of Gaul, 
the Franks in the north, and other barbarians near the 
frontiers of Germany and Italy. But he could not prevent 
Attila from crossing the Rhine. 

Attila and the Huns. — The Huns, a ferocious tribe 
issued from Tartary, had for some time been hovering along 
the frontiers, north of the Danube. Their king, Attila, who 
delighted to call himself the scourge of God, is depicted by 
historians as hideous in person, with an enormous head, 
small glittering eyes, a flat nose, a swarthy complexion, a 
stern and haughty bearing. Attila was held in horror not 
only by the Greeks and Romans, but also by the Goths and 
most of the barbarians who had preceded him in the terri- 
tories of the empire. To slay, to plunder, to destroy — such 
was his mission. Fire and blood marked his track. After 
vanquishing the troops of Theodosius II and imposing a 
tribute on him, he turned northward, and attacked the tribes 
on the Elbe and the Baltic. He next crossed the Don and 
the Volga, and was making war upon the Tartars, when, 
finding that the Byzantine court had failed to pay its tribute, 
he hurried back to the Danube, and ravaged Thrace and 
Illyria. 

Rescue of Orleans (a. d. 451). — Deterred by a bribe 
from further attacking the empire, Attila determined to 
march against the Visigoths in Gaul. When Aetius under- 
took to defend them, Franks, Burgundians, and Romans, 
flocked to his standard, the ravages of the Huns arousing 
every nationality against them. Attila crossed the Rhine 
through the connivance of a Frankish chieftain, his ally, and 
devastated the country as far as Orleans, on the Loire. That 
city closed its gates, yet barely escaped destruction. The 
Huns had already effected a breach in the walls, and were 
beginning the work of plunder, when Aetius with his Romans 
and Theodoric with his Visigoths, entering the city from the 
south, charged the barbarians. The surprise of the latter 
was equal to the suddenness and violence of the attack. 
Attila had besieged Orleans with only part of his army, 
having sent a division northward for the protection of his 
Frankish allies, and left the rest among the Burgundians, both 
to prevent them from rallying and to menace the passes of 
the Alps. When, therefore, he saw that Aetius and Theo- 

53 



614 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLV. 

doric opposed him with their full contingents, not choosing 
to risk a general battle with his present numbers, he fell back 
upon his base of operations ; and, calling in his wings from 
Arras and Besancon, concentrated all his troops on the vast 
plains of Chalons-sur-Marne. No more favorable spot could 
have been chosen for his scattered forces to converge upon ; 
none better suited for the operations of his cavalry, the arm 
in which lay his chief strength. 

Battle of Chalons (a. d. 451). — The confederate 
armies of Romans, Visigoths, Alans, and Franks, followed 
their wary foe to the ample battle-ground of his choice. 
Aetius commanded on the right of the allies, king Theo- 
doric on the left, and the Alan prince, Sangitan, in the centre. 
After some manceuvering, Aetius succeeded in occupying a 
sloping hill which commanded the left flank of the Huns. 
From this post no effort of the enemy could dislodge him, 
though Attila, who saw the importance of the position, 
detached some of his best troops from the centre to aid his 
left in the attack. Whilst the allies thus had the advantage 
on their right, their left gained a still more decisive triumph 
over the Ostrogoths, who formed the right of Attila's army. 
True, the gallant Theodoric fell struck down by a javelin, as 
he rode onward at the head of his brave Visigoths. But his 
followers, undismayed and rendered only the more furious 
by his fall, routed the enemies opposed to them, and then 
attacked the Hunnish centre, which had been engaged in an 
indecisive contest with the Alans. In this peril, Attila fell 
back upon his camp, where his archers, from the top of the 
entrenchments and wagons, easily kept the assailants at bay 
till nightfall. His menacing attitude, on the next day, 
daunted his antagonists. No measures were taken to 
blockade him in his camp. He was allowed to march 
back the remnants of his army without molestation, carry- 
ing off his booty and a multitude of captives. But his 
dream of founding a new anti-Christian dynasty upon the 
wreck of the empire, had vanished. The field just won was 
the last victory* of imperial Rome. But, among the long 
fasti of her triumphs, few can compare, in importance and 
ultimate benefit to mankind, with this expiring effort of her 
arms. By it, the relics of classic civilization, and the early 
institutions of the Christianized Germans and Goths, were 
saved from the hopeless chaos of Tartaric domination. By 
it, also, the Germanic element, so conspicuous in the civiliza- 



A. D. 424-455. VALENTINIAN III. 615 

tion of modern Europe, was reserved for centuries of power 
and glory. 

Attila and St. Leo (a. d. 452). — Attila's attacks on 
the western empire were renewed the following year. 
Invading Italy by way of Illyria, the ferocious Hun sacked 
Aquileia, Padua, and Verona. The fugitives from these cities 
took refuge in the islands of the Veneti, where they became 
the founders of Venice. Rome trembled ; nor was there at 
hand any force capable of arresting the march of the in- 
vaders. In this extremity, the great pontiff St. Leo under- 
took an embassy to the king of the Huns. He found the 
haughty barbarian at the place where the Mincio enters the 
Lago di Garda ; and such was the persuasive eloquence with 
which he addressed him, that Attila, after accepting a heavy 
bribe from the emperor, agreed to evacuate Italy. He with- 
drew to his stockade on the Danube ; and, soon after, was 
taken with a violent vomiting of blood, of which he died 
(a. d. 453). With him disappeared the vast empire which 
he had founded. 

Death of Valentinian hi (a. d. 455). — Aetius outlived 
Attila only one year. A charge of conspiracy having been 
brought against him, he was summoned before the emperor, 
who, without demanding any explanation, stabbed him with 
his own hand. By this summary execution, Valentinian de- 
prived himself of his only defender. A few months later, 
he was in turn assassinated by Maximus, a senator, who 
assumed the purple, and forced his widow, Eudoxia, to ac- 
cept his hand. The princess bowed to the odious necessity ; 
but secretly sent a message to Genseric, entreating him to 
avenge both her and Valentinian. 

Sack of Rome by Genseric (a. d. 455). — The Van- 
dal chief failed not to seize such a golden opportunity. 
With a large fleet he crossed the Mediterranean, sailed up 
the Tiber, and entered Rome. Unable to do more, St. Leo 
obtained from him that the lives and buildings should be 
spared. But the work of pillage went on for 14 days. The 
Vandals loaded their ships with ornaments of gold and 
silver, with metal statues, with the precious trophies sus- 
pended in the Capitol and the Temple of Peace, in a word, 
with all the wealth of Rome. They also plundered Nola. 
Capua, and other southern towns. Among the 60,000 cap- 
tives carried off by them, were the empress Eudoxia and the 
two daughters she had borne to Valentinian 111. One of 



616 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVl. 

these Genseric gave in marriage to his own son. Eudoxia 
he surrendered to the emperor Leo. 

Extinction of the Empire of the West (a. d. 476). — 
The western empire was now in the last stage of its existence. 
Maximus had been stoned to death, and Avitus, a senator 
of great repute, was invited to assume the diadem. But the 
real authority, from this time onward, was exercised by the 
commanders of the barbarians, who, under the denomination 
of confederates, having been taken into pay by the govern- 
ment, formed the imperial army. Ricimer, their general, 
after compelling Avitus to withdraw to his estate in Au- 
veigne, created and deposed, in quick succession, Majori- 
anus, Severus, Anthemius, and Olybrius (457-472). His 
death did not put a stop to the military despotism of the 
confederates. By them Olybrius was set aside to make 
room for Glycerius (473), who, in turn, had to abdicate in 
favor of Julius Nepos (475). Finally, the patrician of the 
empire, Orestes, a Pannonian of Roman origin, who had won 
wealth and reputation at the court of Attila, was allowed to 
bestow the purple on his own son, a child of six years, who, 
by a singular coincidence, bore the name of Romulus 
Augustulus. 

Romulus Augustulus was the last of the western emperors. 
Odoacer, a chief of the Heruli, demanded from Orestes, in 
the name of the confederates, one-third of the lands of Italy. 
When this was refused, Odoacer, marching against Orestes, 
slew him, stripped the boy Romulus Augustulus of the 
purple, and had himself acknowledged king of all Italy, A. 
D. 476. Thus was the Roman empire destroyed in the west, 
1229 years after the building of the city, 507 after the battle 
of Actium. 



CHAPTER XLVI. 
Roman Literature. 



The Oldest Roman Poets. — War for a long time so 
completely absorbed the Romans, that they paid little atten- 
tion to letters. Indeed, there is no trace of literary efforts 
among them, till after the subjugation of Southern Italy. 
Their literature began with the drama, and it was only in 



N& 



'w fi 



ROMAN LITERATURE. 617 

240 B. C. that the first regular dramatic piece was exhibited 
at Rome. It was from the pen of Livius Andronicus, a na- 
tive of Magna Grsecia ; and, like the subsequent dramas of 
the same poet, as indeed of all his successors for many years, 
was nothing more than a translation from the Greek. An- 
dronicus, besides tragedies and comedies thus borrowed 
from Grecian sources, wrote an Odyssey and some hymns. 

The second Roman poet was Naevius, a native of Cam- 
pania. As he made the stage a vehicle for assailing the 
aristocracy, he was thrown into prison, and even expelled 
from Italy. In his retirement at Utica, he composed an epic 
poem on the first Punic war, wherein were introduced the 
popular legends connected with the foundation of Rome. 

The next writer of note is Ennius (b. c. 239-169). Born in 
Calabria, he was brought to Rome by Cato, and here sup- 
ported himself by acting as preceptor to the noble Roman 
youths. His chief work, the Annals of Rome, remained, 
down to the age of Virgil, the great epic poem of the Latin 
language. Besides the Annals, Ennius composed a number 
of tragedies, comedies, and satires. His poetical talents 
procured for him the patronage of the Scipios, and he was 
buried in the sepulchre of that illustrious family. 

Poets of the Golden Age anterior to Augus- 
tus. — The most celebrated are Plautus (b. c. 254-184) and 
Terence (b. c. 195-150), Lucretius (b. c. 95-51) and Ca- 
tullus (b. c. 87-48). Plautus, a comic poet, began his liter- 
ary career when about thirty, and continued to write for the 
stage nearly 40 years. His comedies enjoyed unrivalled 
popularity among all classes, and continued to be repre- 
sented down to the time of Diocletian. Though, like those 
of his predecessors, they are founded on Greek models, the 
characters in them invariably act, speak, and joke like 
genuine Romans; hence the favor with which they were 
regarded at Rome. by both the learned and the unlearned. 

Less popular, but more refined in tone and language, were 
the comedies of Terence, which intellectual Romans admired 
for their immaculate purity and elegance of expression. Al- 
though a foreigner and a freedman, Terence was treated as an 
equal by Lselius and the younger Scipio. There were two 
tragic poets contemporary with Terence, who also enjoyed 
great celebrity, but all of whose works have perished, Pacuvius 
and Accius. 

The name of Lucretius has been immortalized by his De 



UIO xii^vii^iiii x\.\-/±rii^, v_-riAfi. ^vi_i V J.. 

Rerum Naiura, which, as a work of art, is admitted by 
all modern critics to be the greatest of didactic poems. In 
it, the literary principles of the Epicurean philosophy, to- 
gether with the most abstruse speculations, are set forth in 
majestic verse ; and the whole is enlivened by digressions of 
matchless power and beauty. Unfortunately, the main points 
of doctrine therein set forth, are wholly erroneous. 

The poems of Catullus comprise elegies, epigrams, and 
lyrics, together with an epic on the nuptials of Peleus and 
Thetis. It has been said of him, that he adorned all he 
touched. Catullus and Lucretius are by some regarded as 
the two greatest of all Roman poets. 

Prose writers before Augustus. — The earliest prose 
works among the Romans, were annals. The oldest Latin 
annalist of whom any considerable fragments have been 
preserved, is Cato the Censor. His important book entitled 
Origines, contained a complete history of Rome from the 
kingly period to the year of his death. This and similar 
works of other annalists were used by Livy, in compiling his 
great history. 

In Cato's time, oratory was already cultivated at Rome as 
one of the chief avenues to political distinction. Cicero, in 
his Brutus, has a long list of renowned orators, whose 
speeches he had heard or read. But he himself far surpassed 
all his predecessors and contemporaries. Nor was it in 
oratory alone that he excelled. His works on philosophy 
and rhetoric, as well as his Epistles, are the most beautiful 
of their kind in the Latin language. 

Varro is pronounced to have been both the most learned 
of Roman scholars, and the most voluminous of Latin 
authors. But of the 490 books which he wrote, only two 
have come down to us : De Re Rustica, a work on agricul- 
ture, composed in his 80th year ; and De Lingua Latiiia, 
a grammatical treatise, of which only 6 books out of 24 have 
been preserved. 

Of Caesar's several works, his Commentaries are all that 
we possess. For purity and clearness of style, they have 
justly obtained the highest praise. 

Sallust, a contemporary and political supporter of Caesar, 
was also a distinguished historian. Only two of his books, 
the Catilina and Jugurtha, have reached us entire. Sallust 
is conspicuous for brevity, and finish of style. 

Cornelius Nepos, the contemporary and friend of Cicero, 



was the author of many works, all of which are lost, except 
his well-known Lives of Distinguished' Commanders. But 
even these, it is thought, are merely an abridgement of the 
original work. 

Augustan Writers. — The most conspicuous of these 
are Virgil (b. c. 70-19), Horace (b. c. 65-8), Tibullus (b. c. 
54-18), Ovid (b. c. 43-A. d. 18) and Livy (b. c. 59-A. D. 17). 
Virgil's poetical works comprise the Eclogues, his earliest 
compositions ; the four books of Georgics, which are the 
most finished of all his poems ; lastly, the sEneid, an epic 
formed on the Homeric plan, the first six books of which 
are modelled after the Odyssey, while the last six recall the 
battles of the Iliad. The fortunes of ^neas and his final 
settlement in Italy, are the subjects of the JEneid; but the 
glories of Rome and the Julian house, are indirectly the 
poet's theme. On his death-bed Virgil wished to burn his 
great epic, to which he had not given the final touches, but 
was happily prevented by his friends. Even during the life- 
time of Augustus, the works of Virgil became schoolbooks, 
and they have continued such ever since. Not remarkable 
for any striking originality, their chief merit lies in the ele- 
gance and beauty of the versification, their singular delicacy, 
simple pathos, and uniform good taste. 

Introduced to Maecenas by Virgil, Horace soon won the 
friendship of this great minister. His works, which consist 
of Odes, Satires, and Epistles, reflect the manners of the 
age more fully than those of any other Augustan writer. 
While devoid of the higher inspirations of lyric verse, his 
Odes are unrivalled for terse and translucent expression, 
agreeable images, and skillful felicities of language and of 
measure. His satires expose the folly rather than the 
wickedness of vice; and in his Epistles are found such 
knowledge of the weaknesses of the human art, such good 
sense and practical wisdom, that they have been the charm 
of the scholar in every age. They are his most original 
and most perfect compositions. The best-known, though 
not the most artistic, the epistle Ad Pisones, or Ars Poetica, 
was probably intended to dissuade Piso's eldest son from 
devoting himself to poetry, by suggesting the difficulty of 
attaining eminence in the art. Horace is the most fre- 
quently quoted of ancient classics, but from none of his 
productions are citations so common as from the Ars 
Poetica. According to his description of himself, as found 



620 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVI. 

in his works, Horace was of short stature, with dark eyes 
and dark hair. Tolerably robust in youth, he grew fat in 
more advanced life, and became a valetudinarian. In dress 
he was rather careless. Though generally frugal and abste- 
mious, he scrupled not upon occasions to indulge in convivi- 
ality, and enjoy the luxuries of his time. 

Like his great contemporary Virgil, whom he survived 
but a short time, Tibullus is described as a gentle and sin- 
gularly amiable man. To Horace he was particularly dear. 
His Elegies are mainly addressed to his mistresses, whose 
beauty and cruelty they depict in tender and exquisitely 
finished verses. 

By his father, Ovid was destined to be a pleader. But 
the hours which should have been spent in the study of 
jurisprudence, were devoted to the worship of the Muses. 
His poetic talents won for him the friendship of a large circle 
of distinguished men; and he enjoyed the favor of Augustus 
till his 50th year, when he was suddenly banished to Tomi, 
on the Euxine. His works consist of amatory poems ; the 
Metamorphoses ; the Fasti, a sort of poetical Roman calen- 
dar, with its appropriate festivals and mythology ; and the 
Elegies, written during his banishment. In these, he pite- 
ously complains of the inhospitable soil, the severity of the 
climate, and the hardships of exile ; but all his entreaties 
could not procure his recall. Gifted with real genius, won- 
derful facility, great vigor of fancy and warmth of coloring, 
Ovid lacked taste and judgment. His works exhibit traces 
of negligence foreign to the other poets of his time. 

Of the prose writers of the Augustan age, Livy is un- 
doubtedly the greatest. His History extended from the 
foundation of Rome to the death of Drusus, B. c. 9, and 
comprised 142 books, of which only 35 have descended to 
us entire. Of the remainder nothing is extant, except incon- 
siderable fragments. In easy elegance and grace of style, 
Livy is unequalled. But his work seems rather a pleasing 
narrative meant to flatter the national vanity, than a critical 
history of Roman events. 

Post-Augustan Writers. — Roman literature did not 
long maintain the elegance and harmony of the golden age; 
and, amidst a host of authors, the period of the empire 
boasts only two names, Juvenal (a. d. 38-?) and Tacitus 
(a. d. ?-ii7), that are really great. 

Of Juvenal we possess 16 satires — full of noble appeals 



ROMAN LITERATURE. 62 1 

to the purest emotions, and of severe rebuke for triumphant 
vice. His language is often harsh and otherwise faulty ; but 
his ideas are so elevated, his perception of truth, honor, and 
justice so clear, that he seldom fails to win the attention of 
his reader. He was banished by Domitian, and died in exile. 

Tacitus, the chief of the imperial prose, has a style wholly 
.his own — vigorous and dramatic, concise and condensed to 
a degree nowhere else found, but not always compatible 
with perspicuity. His descriptions are full of animation; 
and his characters, of living reality. Only a small portion 
of his Historiarimi Libri, a history of his own age from 
Galba to Domitian, is preserved. His Annates, or history 
of Rome from the death of Augustus to that of Nero, are 
also imperfect. His Life of Agricola is one of the most 
delightful of biographies. A treatise On Orators is also at- 
tributed to Tacitus. 

The Pharsalia of Lucan (a. d. 38-65), an epic on the 
wars between Caesar and Pompey, contains many fine 
thoughts and striking images, generally expressed in pure 
language and harmonious versification. 

Martial (a. d. 40-110) has left about 1500 epigrams ', full 
of originality and wit, but often indecent and obscure. Of 
the Fables of Phaedrus, written under Augustus and Tibe- 
rius, and which are so well known, it is unnecessary to speak. 
The Alexander the Great of Quintus Curtius, and the Twelve 
Ccesars of Suetonius, are also pleasant reading. Velleius 
Paterculus, Valerius Maximus, Florus, Justin, Aurelius Victor, 
Eutropius, Ammiamus Marcellinus, were authors of histori- 
cal works not void of merit or interest. 

Quintilian (a. d. 42-?), a celebrated teacher of rhetoric 
and a person of excellent character, has left a most valuable 
work upon oratory, Libri duodecim Institutionis Orato7 r ice. 
This book, wherein by precept and example he strives to 
restore the purity of the language, has ever been the chief 
guide of rhetors, and the storehouse whence most precepts 
contained in modern rhetorics have been drawn. The philo- 
sophical essays and other works of Seneca (b. c. ?-a. d. 65), 
although full of affectation, and otherwise offending against 
taste, have always been admired. 

In his Histoj ia Naturalis, the elder Pliny passes in re- 
view the whole circle of human knowledge — the heavens, 
the earth and its inhabitants, trees, flowers, minerals, the 
sea, the arts and sciences. His nephew, the younger Pliny, 



622 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVII. 

was a famous orator, or declaimer; but he is chiefly remem- 
bered for his agreeable letters, and the purity and dignity 
of his character. 



CHAPTER XLVII. 

Progress of Christianity. 



Remote Preparation. — The transportation of the Jews 
into Assyria and Babylonia; the formation of the Persian 
empire, which, together with the Jewish dispersion, greatly 
contributed to disseminate the belief in one only God, com- 
mon to both Jews and Persians ; the conquests of Alexander 
and consequent spread of the Greek language in the east; 
above all, the great fabric of the Roman commonwealth, 
which so closely united the western with the eastern world, 
connecting the whole by ties political, commercial, and lit- 
erary, and rendering travel both easy and secure — such 
were the successive steps divinely preordained to facilitate 
the carrying out of Christ's injunction to his apostles : " Go 
ye forth into the whole world, and teach all nations." 

Rapid Diffusion of the Gospel. — So great was the 
rapidity with which the Gospel spread and filled the earth, 
that St. Paul applies to the Twelve the words of the Psalmist : 
"And indeed their sound hath gone forth to all the earth, 
and their words to the end of the whole world." A hundred 
years after Christ, we find the Church established, not only 
in Palestine and Syria, where it sprung up, but in Egypt, 
Asia Minor, and Greece; in Italy, Gaul, and Spain; in 
those parts of Germany, Britain, and Africa which were 
subject to Rome; and, beyond the limits of the empire, in 
Armenia, Persia, and India, as well as among the Sarma- 
tians, Dacians, Scythians, Moors, and Gsetulians. Of this 
wonderfully rapid diffusion of Christianity, the early Fathers 
speak with enthusiasm : " There is," exclaims Justin Martyr 
in the second century, " no people, whether Greek or bar- 
barian, among whom prayers and thanksgiving are not 
offered to the Father and Creator of the world, in the name 
of Christ crucified" — a statement which is confirmed by 
Irenseus, Tertullian, Origen, and others. 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 62^ 

Persecutions. — The rapid growth of the Church will 
appear the more marvellous, if we consider the difficulties 
which the gospel encountered from the human passions, 
which it thwarted ; from national prejudices, which it disre- 
garded ; from the opposition of both Jews and pagans alike ; 
lastly, from the strenuous efforts made by the civil power to 
extinguish the new religion. During nearly 300 years, the 
faithful continued the objects of popular suspicion or hatred, 
sometimes tolerated by the emperors and magistrates, but 
generally subject to numberless vexations, harassed in a 
thousand ways, tracked, cast into dungeons, horribly tor- 
mented, and put to death. But " the blood of the mar- 
tyrs was the seed of the Church," and the number of Chris- 
tians increased with the persecution. 

Heresies. — Invincible against external enemies, the 
Church was equally so against those that arose from her 
own ranks. As predicted by Christ, heresies sprang up 
among the Christians long before the heathen persecutions 
were ended, and, after their cessation, burst forth with in- 
creased violence. Hardly had the peace of Constantine 
been proclaimed, when a storm was raised by Arius, more 
violent than any the Church had yet encountered. Seduced 
by this heresiarch, the emperor Constantius harassed both 
clergy and people throughout the empire. His successor, 
Julian, who wished to destroy Christianity altogether, fondly 
encouraged the factions by which the Church was divided. 
After him, Valens showed himself no less ardent a cham- 
pion of Arianism than even Constantius. The Goths, in- 
fected by him with this error, carried it to the utmost con- 
fines of the empire. Other heresies and schisms followed. 
But, by means of her ecumenical councils — at Nice, Con- 
stantinople, Ephesus, Chalcedon, and through the firmness 
of her pontiffs and great doctors, she triumphed over heresy, 
as before over the torments of the heathen persecutors. 

Apologists. — Popular prejudice, under the pagan em- 
perors, attributed every public calamity to the impiety of 
the Christians, for refusing to worship the national gods and 
indulge the national vices. Hence every plague or famine 
or earthquake or defeat became invariably the signal for the 
mob to renew the ominous cry, " The Christians to the lions ! " 
To counteract these prejudices, the most learned among the 
Christians early addressed to various emperors apologies^ 
or statements in vindication of the Christian faith and char- 



624 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVII. 

acter. Thus Quadratus, bishop of Athens, and Aristides, a 
converted philosopher of the same city, presented apologies 
to Hadrian ; Justin Martyr, to Antoninus Pius and Marcus 
Aurelius ; Claudius Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis, Melito, 
bishop of Sardis, and the rhetorician Miltiades, to the same 
Aurelius; also Athenagoras, an Athenian philosopher, to 
the emperors Marcus Aurelius and Commodus. But the 
greatest works of this class were Tertulian's Apologeticus, 
written (about A. D. 200) during the persecution of Alex- 
ander Severus, Origen's exhaustive volume against Celsus, 
the Divine Institutes of Lactantius, and the City of God of 
St. Augustine. 

Christian Writers in the 2d and 3d Centuries. — 
Clement of Alexandria, Origen, Tertullian, and St. Cyprian, 
are the greatest names of the period. — Clement was born in 
heathenism, but was led by dissatisfaction with the Greek 
philosophy in which he was deeply versed, to seek for the 
pure truth of the Gospel. After hearing several eminent 
teachers, he was at last converted by Pantaenus, the first 
known superintendent of the catechetical school of Alex- 
andria, and became a priest in that city. Between 189-203, 
as successor of Pantsenus in the headship of the school, he 
labored assiduously, by writing and oral instruction, in the 
work of Christian education and heathen conversion. 

Origen, the son of the martyr Leonidas of Alexandria, 
was taught by his father both secular and sacred learning. 
He attended also the lessons of Clement, whom he suc- 
ceeded, at the age of 18, as head of the school. Under him, 
it became a seminary not only of sacred learning, but of 
general culture also; and was frequented even by Jews, 
heathens, and Gnostics, several of whom became fervent 
Christians. Origen was the most learned man of his time. 
With his wonderful knowledge he united a most tender 
piety, consecrating all his studies by prayer, and turning 
them to the service of God. His voluminous works are not 
exempt from errors ; but these must not blind us to the im- 
mense value of his services in the cause of truth, especially 
as an interpreter of the word of God. 

Turtullian, the first great Christian writer in the Latin 
language, was born about the year 160, at Carthage. Trained 
to the profession of an advocate, it was not till his 30th or 
40th year that he embraced Christianity. Tertullian was a 
man of keen intellect, vast learning, and singular eloquence ; 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 625 

but >his ardent and ill-balanced nature led him into a de- 
plorable exaggeration of asceticism, and his works for the 
most part were composed after he fell away to Montanism. 
Abrupt and concise, rapid and impetuous, full of strong 
images and hyperboles, the style of his writings is in perfect 
keeping both with the thought expressed and the character 
of the author. 

Born of a noble Carthaginian family, Cyprian lived to 
mature age in luxury and the vicious license of heathenism. 
But he no sooner became convinced of the truth of Chris- 
tianity, than he proved the sincerity of his conversion by 
taking a vow of chastity and selling his goods for the benefit 
of the poor. A man of great intellectual culture, he had 
already attained the highest fame as a teacher of rhetoric. 
To this was now added the halo of sanctity ; and, within three 
years from his conversion, he was raised by the acclamations 
of the people to the bishopric of Carthage (a. d. 248). In this 
capacity Cyprian displayed great administrative talents, 
combining strictness and moderation, dignity and gentleness, 
so as to inspire love and confidence as well as esteem and 
veneration. As an author, St. Cyprian is far less original, 
fertile, and vigorous than Tertullian ; but he is clearer, and 
more elegant in his style. St. Irenaeus, Minucius Felix, and 
Arnobius, were other distinguished Christian writers of the 
period under review. 

The Age of Doctors. — The 4th century of the Chris- 
tian era has been styled the Age of Doctors — an appella- 
tion which the names of Athanasius and Basil, Chrysostom 
and Gregory, Ambrose and Hilary, Jerome and Augustine, 
amply justify. Of St. Athanasius and St. Ambrose we have 
spoken above ; and of the others a short sketch is all that 
our limited space allows. Three of them belong to Cajjpa- 
docia — Basil, his brother Gregory of Nyssa, and his friend 
Gregory Nazianzen. 

After studying with his father till the age of 18, and at 
Constantinople with Libanius, St. Basil spent the next five 
years (351-355) in perfecting himself in oratory, mathe- 
matics, and philosophy, at Athens. On his return, he taught 
rhetoric in his native city, but soon withdrew into solitude, 
where he applied exclusively to meditation and prayer. 
Reluctantly drawn from his retreat to be ordained priest, he 
was in a few years made bishop of Caesarea and metropolitan 
of Cappadocia with fifty suffragans under him. Here, be- 

53 



626 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVII. 

sides his usual austerities, his charity to the poor and love 
of poverty, he displayed such administrative talents and 
such invincible firmness in resisting the Arian emperor 
Valens, as have immortalized his short pontificate of 9 years 
(370-379). His works on the Scriptures, as also on the 
divinity of Christ and of the Holy Ghost, have secured him- 
a distinguished place among the Fathers as a theologian, 
while his discourses have won for him. a high rank among 
the sacred orators. 

St. Gregory of Nyssa, a younger brother of Basil, by 
whom he was educated, first taught rhetoric at Caesarea, and 
then led for some time in solitude a life of study and ascet- 
icism. Raised by Basil to the bishopric of the small town 
of Nyssa (372), he was revered by the Fathers of the first 
council of Constantinople, at which he assisted, as one of the 
pillars of Catholic orthodoxy. Besides the life of his sister 
Macrina and the panegyric of his brother Basil, he composed 
biographical Eulogies on St. Stephen, the Forty Martyrs of 
Sebaste, St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, St. Ephrem, and St. 
Meletius, bishop of Antioch ; also homilies on the Scriptures, 
and several ascetic tracts. His writings are not surpassed by 
those of any other Father for clear and distinct statements 
of doctrine. 

Inferior to his bosom friend, Basil, as a Church ruler, and 
to his namesake of Nyssa as a speculative thinker, St. 
Gregory Nazianzen was superior to both as an orator. 
Trained in Greek science, as well as in Scripture learning, 
Gregory early chose the profession of rhetoric, and pursued 
his studies at Caesarea in Palestine ; next at Alexandria, 
where Athanasius was then bishop, and finally, at Athens, 
where he formed his well-known close, and lifelong intimacy 
with Basil. Returning to his native province at 30, he lived 
alternately in solitude, at Nazianzus, and at Seleucia in Isauria, 
till he was called to preach and act the pastor, as champion 
of orthodoxy, in the heretical capital of the empire (379- 
381). Gregory's high place in ecclesiastical literature is 
due to his eloquent orations. Of these, five, called theolog- 
ical, were delivered at Constantinople against the Eunomian 
and Macedonian heretics ; the remaining 45 are eulogies and 
discourses on the events of his own life, on public affairs, 
and on Church festivals. As a poet, St. Gregory Nazianzen 
holds a respectable place. His Epistles, like those of St. 
Basil, are full of information about his life and times ; and, 
in some cases, very graceful and interesting. 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 627 

John of Antioch, surnamed Chrysostom (the golden- 
mouthed), was the favorite pupil of Libanius, who would 
have appointed him as his successor in the chair of rhetoric, 
'had not the Christians snatched him away.' Having 
finished his course of eloquence, and applied to philosophy, 
in which he also excelled, John devoted himself with much 
earnestness to pleading at the bar ; but soon resolved to con- 
secrate his powers to a sacred use. After three years' pro- 
bation, he was baptized, and made lector by St. Meletius, 
his bishop. On the death of his widowed mother, in whose 
house he had lived the life of a recluse, John further spent 
6 years of still more rigorous penance in distant solitudes 
(374-380) ; after which he was raised to the deaconship, and 
next to the priesthood. During the years of his ministry 
at Antioch, he acquired great fame as a preacher and 
expositor of Scripture, and won by his pure and devoted 
character universal love and admiration. Elevated to the 
patriarchal see of Constantinople, he now attained the cli- 
max of power and fame for eloquence; but his bold 
denunciations of vice made him enemies in high places. He 
was twice sent into exile ; but the first time, to appease the 
anger of his flock, he had to be recalled. Banished a 
second time, he died of ill treatment. 

The discourses of St. Chrysostom, about 600 in number, 
are for the most part consecutive expositions of entire books 
of Scripture, Some of his homilies, however, treat of sep- 
arate texts, and some are controversial ; but all are remark- 
able for profoundness of thought, clearness of exposition, 
and exquisite arrangement. The style is elevated and easy, 
rich in figures and comparisons, and full of striking images. 
Wonderlul are said to have been the effects of Chrysostom's 
oratory. Gifted with a clear and sonorous voice, graceful 
gesture, and brilliant imagination ; his mind well stored with 
Scripture lore, his soul fired with the flame of charity, his 
heart replete with the generosity of the cross; a perfect 
master of rhetoric and logic, knowing all the avenues to the 
human feelings, and in full sympathy with his hearers ; now 
like a torrent from the mountain height, now like a river in 
its majestic course — he appears to have completely riveted 
his audience. Tears, terror, joy, admiration, in turn were 
elicited ; and often was the eloquence of the orator inter- 
rupted by bursts of acclamation. 



62S ANCIENT ROMfi. Chapt. XLV1I. 

_ St. Hilary of Poitiers, so styled from his birthplace and 
bishopric, was already of mature age when he embraced 
Christianity. His writings are distinguished for thorough 
knowledge of the Scriptures, and the skill with which he 
expresses the ideas of his Greek models— Origen and 
Athanasius — in the less flexible Latin. His zeal in defence 
of orthodoxy and strenuous opposition to Arianism in Gaul, 
caused him to be surnamed ' The Athanasius of the West.' 
Born of wealthy parents in Dalmatia, St Jerome received 
a thorough education in Rome ; but it was not till about his 
30th year that he devoted himself to a life of ascetic disci- 
pline, joined with literary labor. From a converted Jew he 
learned the Hebrew language; and, henceforth, his chief 
occupation was his translation of the Scriptures direct from 
the original — a work which has won for him the title of Doctor 
Maximus.* St. Jerome was also distinguished as an 
eminent spiritual director, and an ardent prdmoter of monas- 
tic life. 

St. Augustine — the greatest name of the Latin Church — 
was a public teacher of rhetoric at Milan, when he became 
a hearer of St. Ambrose, and a convert to the Christian 
faith, being then in his 34th year (387). The four years 
which followed his conversion, he spent in retirement, medi- 
tation, and study. But, happening one day to assist at the 
divine service in the cathedral church of Hippo, he was com- 
pelled to receive the ordination to the priesthood, and before 
long succeeded to the bishopric. Henceforth, Augustine led 
a life in common with his clergy. His house became a 
school of theology, and no woman was permitted to enter it. 
The inmates, like the prelate, wore the black dress of the 
eastern cenobites ; their common meal, a frugal reoast, was 
usually seasoned with reading. Augustine preached almost 
daily in his own church, and in the churches of his brother 
bishops, when abroad. During his episcopate of 35 years, 
no religious question of importance arose, whether in Africa 
or throughout the west, but he took in it a prominent part ; 
and by his voluminous writings, which touch on almost 
every point of dogmatic theology, he wielded in his own 
day, and has since exercised more influence in doctrinal 
matters than any other Father of the Church. Unrivalled in 
powers of logic and reasoning, profound in metaphysics, 

*The greatest doctor. 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 629 

warm and poetic, brilliant and imaginative, acquainted with 
all the ancient religions and philosophies and with every 
shade of contemporaneous thought, always ready to con- 
front error in personal conflict or with the pen, St. Augus- 
tine was one of the most extraordinary men that ever lived. 

Lactantius, Eusebius of Csesarea, St. Ephrem, St. Cyril of 
Jerusalem, St. Epiphanius, St. Cyril and Didymus of Alexan- 
dria, St. Prosper of Aquitania, St. Honoratus, and above all, 
St. Leo the Great, are other illustrious names of that mar- 
vellous age, when the Christian teachers and writers, monopo- 
lizing all the learning and eloquence of the declining Roman 
empire, made it subservient to the cause of Christianity. 

Christianity and Roman Society. — Most degraded 
was the moral state of society, at the advent of Christ. Vice 
was deified. Lust had become a part of the religious wor- 
ship. Infanticide, divorce, and slavery, not only were legally 
recognized, but prevailed to a frightful extent. Intemper- 
ance and gluttony were no disgrace. Fathers had the right 
of life and death over their children, and masters over their 
slaves. Woman was held in a state of inferiority and degrada- 
tion. Poverty and misery excited nothing but contempt. 
The Romans, in particular, had become so callous to the 
sufferings of their fellow-beings, as to take their chief delight 
in the combats of gladiators ; and we read that even the 
mildest and best of emperors — a Titus, a Trajan, and such 
like— felt no scruple in forcing thousands of unfortunate cap- 
tives to butcher one another merely ' to make a Roman holi- 
day.' Yet, in such ill-prepared soil, did the evangelical vir- 
tues soon thrive with wonderful luxuriance. In place of the 
enormities which they before practised, the converts became 
models of temperance and chastity, of humility and charity, 
of justice and uprightness. To love their enemies, to forgive 
injuries, to compassionate the poor, to look on their slaves as 
dear brethren in Christ, to tend the sick, to feed the poor, 
to hold health and wealth as vanities, to despise honors, 
to be patient under sufferings in hope of a blissful eternity — 
such were the virtues which the Sun of justice caused 
to flourish everywhere. Even the pagans did not re- 
main blind to this wonderful transformation. Pliny saw 
nothing but innocent behavior in the Christians of his 
province of Bithynia. Constantius Chlorus preferred Chris- 
tians to all others in his service. Libanius, on beholding the 
virtuous conduct of Anthusa, the mother of his favorite pupil 



6 3 o Ancient rome. Chapt. xLvii. 

John, could not help exclaiming, ' 'Ah ! what women there 
are among the Christians ! " When half the population of 
the empire had thus come to practise those heavenly virtues 
in privacy, Constantine rightly judged the moment had 
arrived to give them some sort of recognition and encourage- 
ment. By various imperial enactments, the condition of 
prisoners was alleviated ; provision was made for the main- 
tainance of the destitute children of the poor ; hospitals for 
the sick were erected; the emancipation of slaves was 
encouraged, and a weekly day of rest granted by law to 
laborers, officials, and soldiers. The impure rights of the 
heathen worship were forbidden ; and the temples wherein 
these were practised, pulled down. An attempt was even 
made by Constantine to put a stop to the barbarous 
gladiatorial combats. Thus did the spirit of the Church 
begin to pervade the civil legislation. But what shows 
still more plainly the wonderful change produced in society 
by the influence of the Gospel, was the spread of mon- 
asticism. 

Early Monasticism. — Not content to practise Chris- 
tian virtues, as best they could, in the midst of the world, 
multitudes tore themselves away from it, to lead in solitude 
or in monasteries a life of prayer and mortification. The 
first distinguished anchorite that we know of, was St. Paul of 
Thebes (229-341), who for 90 years lived alone in the desert 
of Upper Egypt. Not he, however, but his disciple Anthony 
(251-356), also an Egyptian, is regarded as the founder of 
monastic life, as it was the latter's fame and example that 
gave it the first great impulse. Despite his desire of living 
by himself the life of the hermit, Anthony felt compelled to 
accept the guidance of thousands of his countrymen, who 
came to settle round him in the desert of the Thebaid, where 
they dwelt in their separate cells — fasting, working, and 
praying, but assembling together at pfoper intervals to par- 
take of the sacraments and hear the burning exhortations of 
their great patriarch. From Egypt, where the number of 
monks is said to have equalled the population of cities, this 
mode of life spread to other countries. In the wilderness of 
Gaza, St. Hilarion, Anthony's disciple, was revered as the 
father of the Syrian anchorites. 

Besides the monks thus living as hermits, there were 
others who preferred the cenobitic, or community life, in mon- 
asteries. This new, or social form of monasticism also 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 63 1 

sprang up in Egypt. Its founder, or at least its first regula- 
tor, was Pachomius, who attained a fame only second to that 
of Anthony. He too was born in the Thebaid, but of heathen 
parents, and was serving in the army of Maximian, when the 
spectacle of the fraternal love reigning among the faithful, 
won him over to Christianity. The monastery over which he 
presided on the island of Tabennae, in the Nile, became the 
type of all such communities in Egypt. Before his death in 
348, the number of his monks, spread through 8 or 9 cloisters 
in the Thebaid, counted already more than 8000, a number 
which grew in the course of a century to 50,000. 

Both the cenobite and the anchorite form of monasticism 
spread rapidly over the east. St. Athanasius, St. Basil, the 
the two Gregories, St. Chrysostom, followed for some time 
this mode of life, and favored it, notably St. Basil, who drew 
up an improved monastic rule, which, before his death, was 
adopted by about 80,000 monks. 

In the west, the spirit of monasticism was first diffused by 
the visits of St. Athanasius when an exile, but especially by 
his Life of St. Anthony. Rome soon had a convent of nuns, 
among whom was Marcellina, sister of St. Ambrose, who 
himself founded a. monastery at Milan. His pupil Augustine, 
as has been said, led with his clergy the life of a monk in his 
episcopal residence, at Hippo. St. Jerome also was ardent in 
propagating monasticism by oral and written exhortation, as 
well as by his own example. But the chief representatives 
of monasticism in the west, in those early days of the institu- 
tion, was the great St. Martin, the patron of Gaul. 

Born in Pannonia of pagan parents, but educated in Italy, 
young Martin followed his brother, an imperial officer, into 
northern Gaul, and served 3 years as a soldier under Con- 
stantius and Julian. Having been baptized in his 18th year, 
he first lived as a hermit in Italy, and afterwards founded a 
monastery in Gaul, near Poitiers. Made bishop of Tours 
against his will, he maintained his monastic life, which was 
sanctioned by numberless miracles. From his example, 
monasticism spread rapidly through southern Gaul, where 
his most eminent successors were Cassian, an ascetic writer, 
who established two cloisters of men and women at Marseilles, 
and St. Honoratus, bishop of Aries, the founder of the 
famous island monastery of Lerins. 

The great development of western monasticism by St. 
Patrick, St. Columba, and St. Columbanus on the one hand, 



632 ANCIENT ROME. Chapt. XLVIt. 

and by St. Benedict of Nursia on the other, belong to 
Medieval history. 

The Church and the Barbarians. — Much as the 
Gospel had leavened Roman society; salutary as were the 
imperial enactments in favor of poor laborers, of widows and 
orphans, of prisoners and slaves ■ great as was the prestige 
of the Christian bishops and clergy ; wide-spread as were 
the benefits of monasticism, — the institutions and traditions, 
the literature and the arts, as well as the laws of Rome, which 
were pagan in their source, still remained essentially pagan, 
as did also a large portion of the population of the empire, 
in whose heart heathenism was too deeply rooted to be 
eradicated by other than violent means. This Providence 
supplied in thatjdeluge of barbarians which, from the death 
of the emperor Theodosius, repeatedly overwhelmed the 
provinces. From the forests of Germany, from the steppes 
of Scythia and Tartary, came this horde of destroyers, burn- 
ing, plundering, laying low what temples of idols still stood, 
and. scattering to the winds the last remnants of superstition. 
But, whilst they seemed only the instruments of destruction, 
they were brought within hearing of Christ's true Church, 
which, with her ancient and unbroken hierarchy, her 
popes, her bishops, her priests, her monks, stood ready to 
receive, to disarm, to soften, to teach, and to civilize them, in 
a word, to make of them men and Christians. The tempest, 
which, had she been merely human, would have engulfed 
her along with the old Roman institutions, served only to 
exhibit her divine perpetuity. Not only did she survive all 
strength of opposition ; but out of chaos, she brought forth 
order ; from ignorance, knowledge ; from barbarism, civili- 
zation; from paganism, Christianity. She became, indeed, 
the mother of the nations which arose from the ruins of the 
Western Empire. Under her influence, the formation of 
Christendom began, and was completed. 

Conclusion. — In material enjoyment and luxury, several 
of the ancient nations rivalled our modern times. In art and 
literature, they produced masterpieces which have not been 
surpassed. But in true civilization, in morals and religion, 
in the government of the individual, the family, and society, 
how striking the difference ! As the light of the Gospel dis- 
pels the darkness, barbarous and infamous rites disappear ; 
unjust and inhuman laws are discarded ; criminal and cruel 
practices cease. The native equality of all is acknowedged. 



PROGRESS OF CHRISTIANITY. £33 

Woman becomes the partner and equal of man. Civil 
power no longer dictates to conscience. In fine, whilst in 
pagan times we meet an occasional example of natural vir- 
tues, in Christian history alone is found the genuine hero — 
whether in the walks of ordinary life, or, for God's sake, con- 
secrated to the service of the neighbor — ever actuated by 
principles of religion, and finding happiness in whatever 
tends to the alleviation of misery, the dispelling of ignorance, 
and the promotion of virtue. 



I N DEX. 



The marks of pronunciation here used have been taken substantially from 
Worcester's Dictionary : a, e, I, 6, u, y, long; a, e, 1, o, u, y, short ; a, e, i, o, u, y, 
obscure ; a, e, i, 6, as va.fdll, there, marine, mdve ; ch, hard; se, ending a syllable 
is equivalent to long e. The" accent ' shows the syllable on which the stress is laid. 



Aahmes, 43. 

Aaron, 98, 99. 

Aba;, 288. 

Abde'ra, a Tyrian colony, 76. 

Abdias, 118. 

Abel, i3. 

Abias, 113, 114, n. 

Abnevis, the bull, 63. 

Abraham,- 81-87, 580. 

Absalom, no. 

Academic school of philosophy, 272, 324. 

Academicians, the, 323. 

Academy, the, 238, 270, 324. 

Acanthus, 250. 

Acarna'nia, 191. 

Acarna'nians, 245, 277. 

Accad, 149. 

Accensi, 340. 

Accius, poet, 617. 

Acco, or Ptolema'is, 74. 

Achab, 77, 115-116. 

Achad, 120. 

Achae'an— hostages, 435 ; league, 315, 316 ; 
monarchies, 198; war, 436. 

Achse'ans, 193, 232, 317, 318. 

Achsc'menes, 163. 

Achse'us, 193. 

Acha/ia, 191, 198, 245; a Roman prov- 
ince, 437. 

Achaz, 117, 134. 

Achil'les, 194, 195. 

Achradi'na, 419, 420. 

Acron, king, 330. 

AcrSp'olis of Athens, 216, 238, 244; of 
Byrsa, at Carthage, 439. 

Actium, battle of, 535, 536. 

Acts of Augustus, 545. 

Adam, 16, 17, 18. 

Ad'ama, 82. 

Adherbal, 458. 

Adiman'tus, 235. 

Adju'tor, 548. 

Administration of the Roman provinces, 
444,445. 

Adram'eleciC, 137. 

Adriano'ple, 593, 594. 

./Ebu'tius, 2d dictator, 348. 

./Ed'uT, or yEduans, 505, 506. 

./Ega'tes, or ./Egatian, Islands, Roman 
victory off the, 402. 

jEge'an, islands of the, 238, 239. 

^Egi'na, island of, 191, 205; ruins in, 225. 



/Egine'tans expelled, 233, 245. 

./Egisthus, 195. 

^Egospot'ami, battle of, 254. 

jElia Cafiitoli'na, or New Jerusalem, 571. 

./Emilian, emperor, 584. 

^Emilian road, 385. 

iEmilius Paulus, slain at Cannae, 413, 414. 

, L., conqueror of Mace- 
donia, 434, 435. 

2Ene''as, 194, 329. 

iEo'lians, 193,200. 

J&oVic colonies, dialect, 200. 

,/E'olus, 193. 

iE'quians, 355, 356. 

iEs'chjnes, 323. 

j^Es'^hylus, 154, 263. 

^E'sop, 270. 

Ae'tius, 612-615. 

iEto'lia, 191. 

.ZEtolian League, 316 ; subdued by Rome, 
428. 

iEtolians, 198, 316, 317. 

Afganistan', 157, 159. 

Africa, circumnavigation of, 60; a prov- 
ince, 439; Vandals in, 612. 

Agamemnon, 194, 195; the Agamemnon, 
a tragedy, 264. 

Agath'ocles, 392, n. ; 395-396. 

Age of the Antonines, 573, n. 

Ager pub' 'licus, or Romanus, public land, 

, 351. 373- " 

Agesila'us, 277, 280, 283. . 

A'gis n (King Agis), 253, 254. 

iv, 316. 

Agni (fire), worship of, 159, 160. 
Aflfgra, general assembly of freemen, 196. 
Agrarian laws, the first, 350 ; of C 
Flaminius, 406 ; of the Gracchi, 452, 

453,457- 
Agric'ola, 565, 609 ; Life of, 621. 
Agriculture in Babylonia, 154 ; in Egypt, 

29. 

Agrigentum founded, 220 ; subdued by 
Carthage, 394 ; by Rome, 397. 

Agrippa Menenius, 348. 

, the minister of Augustus, 532, 

535, 536, 542; 

Agrippi'na, wife of Germanicus, 548. 

Claudius, 554, 556. 

Aha'la, 361. 

Ahriman, the principle of evil, 160. 

Ahuramazda, or Ormazd, 159, 160, 168. 



6 3 6 



INDEX. 



Ahuras, or Devas, 139. 

Ajax, 194. 

Akiba, 572. 

Ala y ni, or Alans, 587, 603, 614. 

Al'aric, 259, 606, 607, 608. 

Alauda, 508. 

Alba Longa, 329 ; destruction of, 335, 336. 

Alban, Lake, 363; Mount, 329, 342. 

Alba'nia, 136. 

Albans, 334-336. 

Albi'nus, emperor, 577, 578. 

Post., 459. 

Alcae'us, 200, 222. 
Alcibl'ades, 251, 252, 253, 256. 
Alcimus, or Joachim, 312. 
Alcmaeon'idae rebuild the temple of 

Delphi, 225. 
Alcman, 221. 
Alesia, 506. 
Alexander the Great, 290-301. 

Seve'rus, 580, 582. 

Alexandria, 296, 321, 624, 626. 
Alexandrian library, 306; school, 325, 

624. 
Alexandrians, 307. 
Alexandrine war, 519. 
AlexandroD'plis, 290. 
Algesi'ras/or Calpe, 76. 
Al'gidus, Mount, 355, 356, 361. 
Allectus, 589. 
Alleman'ni, 582, 589, 597. 
Allia, battle of the, 364. 
Allies, of Athens and Sparta,24S ; Roman, 

. 3 8 3-384 , 456, 467- 
A ! Iob'roges, 462, 491. 
Alphabet, Phcenic'ian, its Egyptian 

origin, 75, 134. 
Alps, Hannibal's passage of, 410. 
Altaku, battle of, 56, 136. 
Alyattes, 162. 
Amalekites, 105, 108. 
Ama'sis, 61-63, 165, 227. 
Amaziah, 117. 
Amazons, 195. 
Ambiani, 503. 
Ambiorix, 504, 505. 
Am'bitus, law against bribery, 449. 
Ambra'cia, 428. 
Ambraciots, 245. 
Ambro'nes, 462, 463. 
Ambrose, St., 599, 600, 603, 604, 625, 628, 

631. 
Aman, 182, 183. 
Amen, Amun, or Ammon, 36, n., 66; see 

Ammon. 
Ameneman, 49. 
Amenemhat 1, 38. 

11, 38. 

in, 39. 

Amen'pphis m, or Amenhotep, 43. 

IV, 45, n. v 

Ameria, 487. 

Ames'tris, 187. 

Ami'da, 598. 

Ammianus Marcelll'nus, 621. 

Ammon, 36, n., 37, n.; oracle of, 29; 

temple of— at Karnak, 44; at Luxor, 

45; worshipped at Napata, 54, 66. 
Ammonites, 106, 108, 114, 117, 120, 143, 

311. 



Ammonium, 37, n. 

Ammon-Ra, 67. 

Amon, king, 120. 

A'mos, 118. 

Amphe'a, 209. 

Amphic'tyon, 202 ; Amphictyons, 202, 

288. 
Amphictyonic— council, 202, 285, 288 ; 

oath, 202. 
Amphic'tyony, 202. 
Amphip'olis, 250, 251 ; captured by Bra- 

sidas, 250 ; by Philip, 284, 285. 
Amphis'sa, 288. 
Amri, 114. 
Amset, 67. 
Amulius, 329. 
Amyn'tas, 284. 
Amyntis, 187. 
Amyrtae'us, 185. 
Anat/asis, 269. 
Anaghar'sis, 223. 
Anac'reon, 217, 227. 
Anactorians, 245. 
An'archy after death of Alexander, 302 ; 

at Rome, 511. 
Anaxag'oras, 223, 244, 265. 
Anaximan'der, 223. 
Anaxlm'enes, 223. 
Anchi'ses, 194. 
An'chorites, 630, 631. 
Ancilia, sacred shields, 334. 
Ancus Martius, 336. 
Animal worship among the Egyptians, 

67, 68. 
Antal'cidas, treaty of, 188, 278. 
Antef, or Enantef, 37. 
Antem'nse, 330. 

Anthe'mius, 610; another, 616. 
An'thimus, 285. 
Anthony, St., 630, 631. 
Anthusa, 629. 
Antigonias, tribe, 303. 
Antig'onus Doson, 316. 

Gona'tas, 315. 

> king of Asia Minor, 302, 303, 

A 30 - 5 ' 

Antioch, foundation of, 305, 321 ; disci- 
ples first called Christians at, 627. 

Anti'ochus 1 Soter, 308. 

11 Theos, 308, 310. 

in the Great, 309; defeated 

at Magnesia, 427. 

•IV Epiph'anes,309 ; his death. 



3"' 



■v Eu'pator, 311. 
— vii Sidetes, 313. 



Antip'ater, regent, 302. 

Antiphon, 322. 

Antium, capture of ships at, 373. 

Antonia, or Baris, tower of, 313, 562. 

Antoninus Pius, 573, 574, 624. 

Antony, Mark, 523, 525, 529. 

Antrim, 609. 

Anu'bis, 67, 68. 

Aod, 104. 

Apame'a, 307. 

Apel'les, 320. 

Apepi, god, 66. 

.king, 42. 

Aphrodl'te, or Venus, 194, 201. 



INDEX. 



6 37 



Apis, the bull, 68 ; killed by Cambyses, 

172. 
Apo<'leti, 317. 
Apollo, 201; vow of Camillus to Pythian, 

362 . 
Apuilodo'rus, 260. 
Apollonius, general, 310. 

■ Rhodius, poet, 325. 

, Stoic philosopher, 576. 

Apologeticus , 624. 
Apol'ogies, 623. 
Apologists, 623, 624. 
Appian, 439, n. 

Way, the, 377 ; Clodius murdered 

on the, 511. 

Appius Claudius, the censor, 377. 
, consul, impeachment 

°f> 353> another, also consul, 397. 

, the decemvir, 357-359. 

Apries, 60, 121. 

Apulia, 377. 

Apulians, 374, 384, 467. 

Aqua; Sextise, battle at, 463. 

Aq'uila, eagle, Roman standard, 406. 

Aquile'ia, first battle of, 596 ; second, 

603 ; third, 605 ; sacked, 615. 
Aquil'ifer, 406, n. 
Aquitani, 503. 
Ara'bia, 26, 569. 
Arabians, 117, 120, "560. 
Ar abs, 114, 129. 

Arach, or Erech, now Warka, 124. 
Arachosia, 167. 
Aradians, 76. 
Ar'adus, 73, 74. 
Aram, 26. 
Arameans, 76; transportation of, 134, 

- ! 42 n. 

Ar'arat, Mount, resting-place of the Ark, 

23. 
Ara'tus, 315. 
Arba'ces, 127, 133, 162, n. 
Arbe'la, battle of, 296. 
Arbogas'tes, 605. 
Area, dia, 191, 200, 210, 281. 
Arca'dian confederacy, 281. 
Arcadius, 610. 

Arch of Trajan at Ancona, 569. 
Archela'us, 284. 

Archias the polemarch, 278, 279. 
Archida'mus, 245. 
Archil'ochus, 221. 
Archimedes, 325 ; defends Syracuse, 

418-421. 
Architecture, Assyrian and Chaldean, 

152; Athenian, 258, 259; Cyclopean, 

192; Egyptian, 33-35, 51, 70; Grecian, 

22 5> 321 ; Persian, 180, 181. 
Archons, 213. 
Arcjhonship, 213, 240. 
Ar'dea, 344. 

Areop'agus, 214, 216, 240, 242. 
Arevaci, 442. 
A 'res, hill of, 214. 
Ar'gilus, 250. 
Arginu'sse, battle of, 254. 
Ar'glves, 251. 
Ar'gphs, 491. 
Ar'gonauts, 192. 



Argos, 192, 193, 190, 205, 210, 232, 245, 251, 

_ 277, 278. 

A'ria, 167, 298. 

Ariana, 26, n. ; 137. 

Arianism, 596, 600, 601, n. ; 602, 603, 628.- 

Arian heretics, 594. 

Aries, 304. 

Arihman, 160. 

Ariobarza'nes, expelled by Mithridates, 

4.69> 519. 
Arion, 222, 263. 
Ariovis'tus, 503. 
Aristag'pras, 228. 
Aristar'chus, 325. 
Aristi'des, 230, 231, 232, 235, n. ; 236, 239, 

240. 
Aristip'pus, 272 ; the Christian apologist, 

573, 624. 
Aristobu'lus, 313. 
Aristocracy of birth, of wealth, 212; 

Augustus conciliates the Roman, 538. 
Aristode'mus, 198. 
Aristogi'ton, 217. 
Aristom'enes, 209. 
Aiistonl'cus, 443. 
Aristoph'anes, 247, 266. 
Ar'istotle, 247, 289, 290; sketch, 324. 
A'rius, heresiarch, 594,623. 
Ark of Noah, 22, 23, 24. 

of the Covenant, 99, 109. 

Armaiti (earth), 160, 161. 

Armenia, 136, 157; under Tigranes, 483, 

5'o ? 569- 
Armillce, 356, n. 
Arminius (Herman), 544,547. 
Army, Carthaginian, 392 ; Roman, 333, 

385-39 1 '■> Tyrian, 76. 
Arnc-'bius, 625. 
Arphax'ad, 26. 
Arpi'num, 186. 
Arras, 614. 
Arrian, 574. 
Ar'saces, 309, 312; 
Arsac'idae, 581. 

Art, last period of the Grecian, 319-321. 
Artaba'zes, 509. 
Artaba'zus, 237. 
Artapher'nes, 228, 229. 
Artavasdes, 533. 
Artax'ata, battle of, 483. 
Artaxer'xes 1 Longlm'anus, 184-187, 241. 
II Mne'mon, 188, 217, 274, 

275. 277. 

, founder of the second Per- 
sian empire, 581. 

Ar'temis, or Diana, 207; temple of, at 
Ephesus, 225. 

Artemisia, 235, 236. 

Artemisium, battle of, 234, 235. 

Aruns, son of Tarquinius Priscus, 341, 
343, 346. 

Arvadites, or Aradians, 76. 

Arverni, 505-507. 

Arya, 157, n. 

Aryan, or Indo-European, race, 115, 125, 
147, i57. 158, 327. 

Aryans, 26; primitive, 158. 

As, asses, 310 ; value of, 310, n. ; 47s, n. 

Asa, 114. 

Asarhaddon, 56, 120 ; reign of, 137. 



6 3 8 



INDEX. 



Ascalon, 75. 
Asca'nius, 329. 
As'culum, battle of, 381. 
Aseneth, Joseph's wife, 91. 
Aser, the patriarch, 80. 

, tribe of, 105. 

Ashdod, 135. 

Asia, central, subdued by Cyrus, 167 ; 

by Alexander, 297, 298 ; settlement of 

by Lucullus, 482. 
Asia Minor, 26, 165, n. ; Greek colonies 

in, 199, 355 ;. settlement of, 428. 
Asia, province of, 443. ' 
Asia, western, 121, 171. 
Asiatic Greeks, 188, 226, 227. 
Asmone'an — family,3io,n.; priest-princes, 

312 ; kingdom, 313. 
Aspasia, 244. 

Assassination of Csesar, 523, 524. 
Assemblies, political, at Rome, 449 ; their 

functions, 449, 450. 
Assidasans, 312. 
Assuerus, or Xerxes 1, 182. 
Assur, 26, 126 ; deified, 152. 
Assurbanipal, reign of, 138, 139. 
Assurdanil n, 133- 
Assuredilili or Saracus, 142. 
Assurisirpal, 131. 
Assurmirami, 133. 
Assurnasirpal, 78. 
Assyria, 26, 118; geography and fertility 

of, 123; primitive, 125; legends con- 
cerning, 126; desolated by Scythians, 

142. 
Assyrian — empire, 129, 143 ; mounds, 127, 

128; proper names, 132, n. ; palaces, 

153, 154; manufactures, 154. 
Assyrians, 119-121, 125, 141. 
Astar'te, temple of, 77. 
Aster, 289. 
Astrology, 151. 
Astronomy, knowledge of in Egypt, 34, 

n. ; 70; in Chaldea, 151. 
Astyages and his court, 163; dethroned 

by Cyrus, 164. 
Asylum, Rome an, 330. 
Ataulphus, or Adolf, 608. 
Ateius, 510. 

Athanasius, St., 594, 596, 597, 625, 631. 
Athali'a, 116. 
Athenag'oras, 624. 
Athe'ne, or Minerva, 201 ; statues of, 244, 

2 59-. 
Athenian — empire, 239-255; democracy, 

212, 218, 240, 242. 
Athenians, 228-258 ; their gratitude to 

Poliorce'tes, 303. 
Athens, 192 ; before the Persian wars, 

213; at the approach of Xerxes, 232 ; 

burned by Xerxes, 255 ; plan of, 238 ; 

fall of, 255, 283, 404, 626. 
Athos, Mount, 230. 
Atossa, 173. 
Atrium, 447. 
Atrocities of war, 247. 
Attalus, emperor, 608. 

of Pergamus,4i9; lastkingof,443. 

Attica, 191 ; ravaged by Xerxes, 235 ; by 

Mardonius,236 ; by thePeloponnesians, 

245 ; census of, 303. 



Attic — dialect, 200 ; orators, 322; tribes, 

218; old-comedy, 266. 
Attila, 611, 613-615. 
Augurs, institution of, at Rome, 334. 
Auguries, 402. 
August, month, 545. 
Augusti, two, 588 ; four, 591. 
Augustin, St., 624, 625, 628, 629, 631. 
Augustulus, 616. 
Augustus, title ; 539, 588, 610. 
Augustus Csesar, 537-545. 
Aulus Plautius, 553. 
Aulus Postumius, Regillensis, dictator, 

348 ; another, also dictator, 361, 362. 
Aurelian, emperor, 585-587. 
Aurelian road, 385. 
Aurelius, Marcus, emperor, 325, 574-576, 

624. 
Aurelius Victor, 621 
Aurunci, 370. 
Auspices, 402, n. 

Auxiliary troops among the Romans, 389. 
Avaris, 42. 

Avaricum (Bourges), 505, 506. 
Aventine, Mount, settled, 336; citadel of 

the plebeians, ^57. 
Avernus, lake, 532. 
Avidius Cassius, 575. 
Avi'tus, emperor, 616. 
Ax'ona (Aisne), 503. 
Azariah, 117. 
Azerbijan', 160. 
Aziongaber, no. 
Azor, 104. 
Azo'tus, 58, 59, 135. 

B. 

Baal, prophets of, on Mount Carmel, 115. 

Baalim, 104, 108. 

Baasa, 114. 

Babel, tower of, 25, 26, n. 

Babylon, or Babel, 121, 124, 125, 139; 
walls and streets of, 144, 146; taking of, 
by Cyrus, 149, 167; fate of, 150; siege 
of by Darius, according to Herodotus, 

175. 276, 3°°- 
Babylonia, geography and fertuity of, 

123. 125, 569. 
Babylonian — empire, 143-155; agriculture, 

commerce, industry, 154 ; depravity, 

155- 
Bac'chides, 311, 312. 
Bacchus, or Dionysius, 201, 319 ; worship 

of in Italy, 446, n. 
Bactria, 298, 309. 
Bactriana, 157. 

Bactrians, 26 ; subdued by Cyrus, 167, 574. 
Bad, the, 212, 213. 
Bagaudse, 59r. 

Baggage of the Roman legionary, 386. 
Bago'as, 189. 
Bagrada serpent, 399. 
Bala, 82. 
Balaam, 126. 
Balbinus, 583. 

Balearic Isles occupied by Carthage, 393. 
B a list a, 304. 
Baltassar, 148-150, 168. 
Barac, 103. 



INDEX. 



639 



Barbarian, meaning of the term, 201. 

Barbarians, 542, 574, 575,^82, 632. 

Barca, subdued by Camby'ses, 172. 

Bar-cochebas, 572. 

Barea Soranus, 556. 

Baris, or Antonia, tower of, 313. 

Barsom, 161. 

Basan, 136. 

Basil, St., 600, 625-626, 631. 

Basileus, the, 213. 

Basiiicce, 487, n. 

Bassianus, 579. 

Bast, or Pasht, 54, n. ; 66. 

Baths of Titus, 563. 

Bathuel, 86. 

Beliistun inscription, 171, 175; rock, 

175, n. 
Bel, or Belus, 152; temple of Belus, 145. 
Bela, 89. 

Bel'esys, 127, 133. 
Belgse, or Belgians, 503, 504. 
Belgic war, 503. 
Bellov'aci, 503. 
Eeltis, 145. 
Beloochistan', 159. 
Ben'adad n, 131, 132. 
Benedict, St., 632. 
Beneventum, Roman military colony at, 

377- 

Beni-hassan, sepulchres at, 40,41. 

Benjamin, 89-92, 113. 

Berenice, 307. 

Bero'sus, 129. 

Bery'tus, 74. 

Besancon, 614. 

Bes leel, 79. 

Bessus, 297. 

Bethel, 90, 113. 

Bethlehem, 543. 

Beih-oron, battle of, 102. 

Beth-Sargina, or Khorsabad, 127, 135, 153. 

Bethulia, 140, 141. 

Bias, 223. 

Bible not a repository of scientific data, 
21, n. ; 31, n. 

Biblical — figures, 19-20 ; genealogies, 17 ; 
recital confirmed by Assyrian discov- 
eries, 128. 

Bib'ulus, Caesar's colleague, 499. 

Birs-i-Nimrud, 144. 

Bishops, 592. 

Bithynia, kingdom of, 308, 469, 470. 

Bitumen, 124. 

Boadicea, 557. 

B'">c'choris, 56. 

Boccnus, 461. 

Breo'tia, 191, 200, 243, 245, 279, 280. 

Breiuian confederacy, 278, 280. 

Boeotians, 236, 237, 245. 

Boii,405; subdued, 429, n. ; 582. 

Bombay', 160. 

Bon 1 JDea, or Good Goddess, profanation 
of her rites by Clodius, 497, 499. 

Bonifacius, 612. 

Book of the Covenant, 98. 

Revelations, 566. 

Books, clay, 12S. 

Borsippa, 139, 149. 

Bosphorus, Thracian, 178; Greek king- 
dom of, 469. 



Bouchard, 30. 

Boitle, council of chiefs, 196. 

Bras'idas, 250, 251. 

Bt'avc, the, 2:2. 

Brcnnus at Delphi, 319; in Italy, 364, 

366. _ 
Breuni, 542. 
Brick, enameled, 154. 
Bridge, Milvian, battle of, 592 ; over the 

Rhine, 504; the Danube, 568; the 

Tagus, 569. 
Brigantes, 609. 
Britain, invasion of, 504; south, 557; 

north, conquered, 565, 588, 589, 608, 

609. 
Britannicus, 555. 
Britons, 521, 609. 

Bronze tablets set up by Hannibal, 423. 
Bructeri, 546. 
Brugsch, 30. 
Brundu'sium, Pompey's retreat to, 515, 

516. 
Bruttians, 384. 
Bruttium, 479. 
Brzitus, the, of Cicero, 618. 
Brutus Decimus, 523, 525, 527, 52S, 529, 

53°- 
■ Junius, at Delphi, 343, 344; the 

first consul, 345. 
— M. J., the conspirator, 523, 524, 

525. 526, 527* 5 2 9« 
Bryas, 251. 
Bryges, 230. 
Bubas'tis, 54. 
Burgundians, 607, 613. 
Burrhus, 554, 555. 
Byblus, book, 31, n. 
Byblus, or Gebal, 74. 
Byzantium, 229, 239, 594. 
Byrsa, 439, 440. 



Ca'diz, or Gades, 76. 

Cadme'a, seizure of, 278; retaken, 278, 

279. 
Cadmus, 192. 
Cadusians, 163. 
Caecl'na, 330. 

Cseles, Etruscans from, at Rome, 332. 
Cfepio, 441, 462. 
Caere, 370. 
Caesar, Julius, 495-497, 502-508, 510-526, 

618. 
Caesare'a, in Palestine, 554, 627; in Cap- 

padocia, 625. 
Caesars, the twelve, 567; creation of two, 

5 83. 
Cain, iS. 
Cainan, 19. 
Cainite Race, 18. 
Calah, or Chale, now Nimrud, 126; its 

mounds and palaces, 130, 134, 135, 136. 
Caleb, 100. 

Caledonia, 571, 572, 578, 590. 
Caledonians, 571, 572, 578, 590. 
Calendar of Numa, 334 ; the Julian, 521 ; 

the Gregorian, 521, n. 
Calf, the golden, 98; calves, the two 

golden, 112, 113. 



640 



INDEX, 



Caliga, 551, n. 

Callg'ula, 550-553. 

Callias, peace of, 185. 

Callk/rates, 435. 

Calllm'achus, poet, 325. 

Callis'thenes, 301. 

Calpe, or Gibraltar, a Tyrian colony, 76. 

Calphurnius, 609. 

Calpurnius Bestia, 458. 

Calvl'nus, 511, 519. 

Camby'ses, father of Cyrus, 163, 164. 

, son ,171,173. 

Camillus takes Veii and Falerii,363, 364; 
is exiled, 364 ; his death, 367. 

Camp, the Roman, 390. 

Campa'nia, 370. 

Campanians, 467. 

Camping ground, 390. 

Campus Martius, 332, n. ; 341, n. ; 526. 

Canaan, son of Cham, 25. 

Canaanites, 26, 104, 105. 

Can'nse, battle of, 413, 414. 

Canuleian law, 360. 

Canta'brians, or Can'tabri, 430, 441, 542. 

Canusium, 420. 

Cafiite ceusi, 341. 

Capitol, building of the, 342, 343; be- 
sieged by the Gauls, 366, 525. 

Capitoline Hill, 338. 

Capitolium, 343. 

Cappadocia, 139, 165 ; kingdom of, 469, 
470, 484, 486, 625. 

Cappadocians, 26. 

Ca'preae, island of, 548. 

Captivity of Israel, 118; of Judah, first, 
120; the great, 121. 

Cap'ua, 371 ; betrayed to Hannibal, 415 ; 
retaken, 418, 419 ; plundered, 615. 

Capuans, 371 

CaracaLla, 578, 579. 

Carac'tacus, 553. 

Car'alis, or Cagliari, 76. 

Carausius, 589. 

Carbo Papirius, 474- 

Carche'mish, 60, 61, 142, n. ; 143. 

Carians in Egypt, 57, 165 ; make com- 
mon cause with Ionians, 229. 

Cari'nus, 587. 

Carma'nia, 159, n.; 299. 

Carmel, Mount, 115, 136. 

Carne'ades, 433. 

Carnu'tes, 505. 

Carrha?, 510. 

Carteia, or Algesiras, a Tyrian colony, 76. 

Carthage, founded, 77 ; commerce, char- 
acter, 391 ; government, military or- 
ganization, 392 ; wars and conquests in 
Sicily, 393-396; wars with Rome, 396- 
403, 410-424, 438; siege *nd destruc- 
tion, 439; later history, 439; recent 
excavations at, 439, 440, 625. 

Carthagena, founded, 400 ; taken by 
Africanus the Elder, 421. 

Carthaginians, 391-403, 410-425, 437-440. 

Carus, 587. 

Casca, 52 j, 524. 

Cassander, 302, 305, 313. 

Cassian, a monk, 631. 
Cassis, 387. 

Cassius, Avidius, 575. 



Cassius, Longinus C, the conspirator, 

523» 526,527, 528, 529, 53T. 

, lieutenant of Crassus, 510, 513. 

Spurius, 352. 

Castor and Pollux at the battle of Lake 

Regillus, 348. 
Catapulta, 304. 
Cat'iline, 474, n. ; 489-492. 
Cato the Censor, 430-434, 618. 
Cato of Utica, 325, 494-495, 513, 520. 
Catullus, Lut., conqueror of the Cimbri, 

463,464,465,471. 
(son) opposes Gabinian Law, 

481 ; also the Manilian, 485. 
(son) hails Cicero as father of 

his country, 493. 

, poet, 618. 

Caudl'ne Forks, 375. 

Caudium, 375. 

Cecrops, 192. 

Cedars of Lebanon, 74. 

Celsus, 624. 

Celtee, 503. 

Celtiberians, 430, 440, 441. 

Celtic race, 26, 157, 158. 

Celto-Scythians (Kinea-Scuit, or Scoit), 

a name sometimes given to the Milesian 

colonists in Ireland, 572. 
Celts, invasion of the, 314-315. 
Cenobitic, or community life, 630. 
Cenoma'ni, 405; subdued, 429. 
Censors, 360, 361. 
Census, god, 330. 

Census of Attica, 303; at Rome, 339, 360. 
Centuries, 340, 386. 
Centurions, 386, 387. 
Ceos, 265. 
Cephallenia, 191. 
Cephallenians, 245. 
Cephren, or Shafra, 33, 34. 
Cepion, 540. 
Ce'res, festivals of, 201. 
Cethe'gus, 491-492. 
Chabrias, 279. 
(^hserea, 552. 

Chserone'a, battle of, 288, 472. 
Chalanne, now Calneh, 124. 
Chalce'don, 229, 594; council of, 611, 623. 
Chalcid^ice, 239. 
Chalde'a, 26; geography of, 123. 
C^halde'an diviners, 150. 
Empire, 124-125 ; civilization, 

151, 152. 
Chaldeans, 121, 125, 143, 151. 
Chaldees, 150. 

Chale, Calah, or Nimrud, 126. 
Chalons, battle of, 614. 
Cham, or Ham, 22, 25, 26 ; race of, 26, 157. 
Champollion, 30. 

Chariots armed with scythes, 104. 
Charon of Lampsacus, 267. 
Chatti, 574, 582. 
Chauci, 582. 
Cheops, 33, 34. 

Cher'sonese, T auric (Crime'a), 469. 
Cherusci, 544, 547, 582. 
Chians, 245. 
Chickens, sacred, 402. 
Chiefs, Homeric, 197. 



Index. 



641 



Chl'lo, 223. 

CJhina, 13. 

C^hios, 200, 227, 220, 239. 

Cheer 'ilus, 263. 

Chpnsu, 67. 

Qhoras'mia, 167. 

Chorus, 266. 

Christ, birth of, 543; preaching and 
death, 549, 580. 

Christian bishops, 592. 

Christianity and stoicism, 576; and 
paganism, 593; and Roman society, 
629 ; progress of, 622-633 ; remote prep- 
aration for, 622. 

Christians persecuted, 558, 566, 568, 569, 

57°, 573, 574. 577, 583, 584. 5 8 °- 589; 
protected, 590, 592, 608. 

Christendom, 632. 

Chronology, Benedictine, 16, n. ; 21 ; 
biblical, 20, 21, no; Egyptian, 31, n. ; 
32; of Usher, 21; of the kingly period, 
no; Roman, uncertainty of, 344. 

Chrysostom, St., 610, 627, 631. 

Church* the, at Jerusalem, 549; and the 
Barbarians, 632. 

Qhus, or Cush, 26, 124. 

(^husan Rasathaim, 104. 

Cicero, the orator, 418, n. ; 486-494, 499- 
501, 510, 512, 513, 525, 527-531, 618. 

, Quintus, 504. 

Cilicia, 139 ; pirates of, 480, 481, 486, 4S7; 
Cicero proconsul in, 51-3. 

Cilicians, 163. 

Cimber, 524, 528. 

Cimbri, 461, 462,463, n. 

Cimon, 241, 242. 

Cincinna'tus, dictator, 355, 356, 359, 360, 
361. 

Cineas, embassy of, 380. 

Cinna, associate of Marius, 471, 472. 

— , grandson of Pompey, 540. 

Circumcision, 83. 

Circumnavigation of Africa, 60. 

Circzcs Maximus , 337. 

Cisalpine Gaul, 363, n. ; 376, 403; con- 
quered, 405; a Roman province, 429 ; 
Gauls, 467. 

Citizens, number of Roman, 383, 451,- n. ; 
468, 541, n. 

Citizenship, Roman, 3S3, 384; conferred 
on all freemen, 579. 

City of God, 624. 

Gives Roiuani. See Citizens. 

Civilization, antediluvian, 19 ; post- 
diluvian, 26, 27 ; Egyptian, 31 ; As- 
syrian and Babylonian, 153, 154 ; 
Homeric, 197; saved at Chalons, 614. 

Civil wars, first, 470; second, 473, 474. 

Civita Vecchia, 569. 

Civitas sine sujfragio, 383, n. 

Clans among the Aryans, 158. 

Classes among Egyptians, 63; of the 
Roman people, 340, 341 ; lower among 
Romans, 448, 449. 

Claudius Apollinaris, 624. 

> emperor, 552-555. 

11, ,585. 

P., defeated near Drep'anum, 

401. 

Clazom/ense, 200. 



Clear'chus, 274. 

Clement of Alexandria, 624. 

Cleobii'lus, 223. 

Cleom'brotus, 280. 

Cleom'enes, 316. 

Cleon, 251. 

Cleo'nse, 205. 

Cleopa'tra 518, 519, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537 

Clepsydra, 151. 

Clermont in Auvergne, 506. 

Clients, 331. 

Clientship, 332, n. 

Clis'thenes, 218. 

Cli'tus, 292, 298. 

Cloacse, or sewers, 337. J 

Clodius, P., the tribune, 484, 497, 499; 

murdered, 511, 512. 
Clrelia, 347. 

Clusium, besieged by Brennus, 365. 
Clytemnes'tra, 195. 
Cnidians, 319. 
Cni'dus, battle of, 277. 
Codrus, 213. 
Coelosyria, 481 ; Roman supremacy over, 

486. 
Colchester, 553. 
Colchis, 75. 
Collatia, city, 337. 
Collatl'nus, Tarquinius, 344. 
Colline Gate, battle of the, '474. 
Colonies, Greek, 199, 200, 220 ; Roman, 

364, 383-384 ; military, 376 ; Latin, 384, 

408. 
Colonus, 323. 
Colosse'um, the, 563. 
Colossi at Ipsambul, 47. 
Colos'sus of Rhodes, 304. 
Columba, St., 631. 
Columba'nus, St., 631. 
Columna rostrata, 398. 
Column of Trajan, 568. 
Comedy, origin of, 262; old Attic, 266; 

middle, 266; new, 321, 322. 
Comitia, political assembly, 341. 
Comitia Centuriaia, 340, 341, 358, n. 
Curiata, 332 ; its rights, 333, 

338, 34 1 - 

— Tmluia, 339, 340, 354, 475. 

Comitium (place of meeting for political 

purposes), 331, 357, 457. 
Commage'ne, 136. 
Commandments, the Ten, 98, 99. 
Commerce, Egyptian, 37 ; Phoenician, 

74,76; Babylonian, 154 ; Grecian, 204. 
Commodus, emperor, 570, 577, 624. 
Concessions to the plebeians, 350, 354, 368, 

37i. 

Conchessa, 609. 

Concord, temple of, 367. 

Confederates, the, 616. 

Confusion of speech, 26. 

Conon gains the victory of Cnidus, 277; 

rebuilds fortifications of Athens, 278. 
Conquest of the Promised Land, 102. 
Co7isistorium Princi/>is, State council, 

established, 571. 
Conspiracy of Catiline, 490-492 ; against 

Csesar, 523. 
Constans, 595, 596. 
Constantine 1 the Great, 589-595, 630, 



6<4f2 



INDEX, 



Constantine it, 595, 596. 
Constantinople founded, 594, 595 ; coun- 
cil of, 623, 626. 
Constantius I Chlorus, 588-590, 629. 
11, son of Constantine, 595- 



597- 



610. 



in, lieutenant of Honorius, 



Constitution of Solon, 215. 

Consul, first plebeian, 366, 367, 

Consuls, duties of the, 345. 

Consulship, institution of the, 345, n. 

Cooks, 446, n. 

Coptic language, 30, n.; 31. 

Copts, 30. 

Cor'bulo, 556. 

Corey 'ra, 191, 245 ; conquered by Rome, 

, 404- 

Corcyrean revolutions, 249. 

Corcyreans, 245. 

Corin'na, 262. 

Corinth, 198, 245, 251, 277, 278 ; sack of, 
436, n. 

Corinthian war, 277. 

Coriola'nus, 352, 353. 

Corioli, 353. 

Cornelia, Caesar's wife, 495. 

, mother of the Gracchi, 451, 457. 

Cornelia gens, 476. 

Cornelii, the, or freedmen of Sulla, 475. 

Cornelius Fronto, 576. 

Nepos, 618, 619. 

Comicines, 340. 

Corona civica,castrensis,muralis, navalis, 
triumphalis, 358, n. 

Corsica occupied by Carthage, 393 ; by 
Rome, 403 ; war in, 431. 

Corsica and Sardinia formed into a prov- 
ince, 403. 

Corruption becomes general, 19, 21, 27 ; 
at Rome, 446. 

Corupedion, battle of, 308, 314. 

Corvus, or crow, employed in naval bat- 
tles, 398. 

Cos, 200, 239. 

Cossus, dictator, 365. 

Cotta, 504. 

Council of the Four Hundred, 216; of 
the Five Hundred, 218. 

Council of Chalce'don, 611, 623 ; Con- 
stantinople, zi, 623, 626; of Nice, 594. 

Covenant, Book of the, 98. 

of the Jewish people, i! 



,187. 
I 479. 



Coward, the, 212, 213 

Crassus, the triumvir, 473, 474, n 

498,508-510. 

,son of the preceding, 510. 

Crat'erus, 302. 

Cratl'nus, 266. 

Creation of the world, 15 ; of man, 16. 

Cremo'na, Roman military colony at, 

377, 406; battle of, 559. 
Cresphon'tes, 198. 
Cre'tans, 26. 
Crete, 191, 245, 480, 481. 
Crispus, son of Constantine, 594. 
Critias, 256. 
Critola'us, 433, 435. 
Croesus, 148, 165, 167, 202, n. 
Croton, and Crotonians, 220, 225. 



Crustumerium, 330. 

Ctesias (te'sias), 162, n. ; 163. 

Ctesiphon (tes'iphori), 323. 569, 598. 

Cumse, 343. 

Cunax'a, battle of, 188, 274. 

Cuneiform writing and inscriptions, 128; 

deciphered, 128. 
Cures, city of, 331. 
Curia Julia, 600, n. 
Curice, or curies, 332, 333, n. 
Curiatii (kuriashe'ai), 334, 335. 
Curius Denta'tus, 376,431. 

,M., 3 8a. 

Curse on Canaan, 25. 

Curtius Melius, devotion of, 369. 

Curule — magistracies, 351, n. ; ediles, 

351- 
Cush, or (^hus, 26, 124. 
Cutha, 139. 
Cushites, 326. 

Cyax'ares, 142 ; reign of, 162. 
Cyb'ele, immoral, worship of, 446. 
Cyc'lades, 191,200. 
Cyclopean architecture, 192. 
Cy' 'clops, the, a satyric drama, 265. 
Cyd'nus, 294. 

Cynosceph'alse, battle of, 426. 
Cynuria, 210. 

Cyprian, St., 584, 624, 625. 
Cypriots, 26, 189. 
Cy'prus, 188, 229. 
Cyreian expedition, 274. 
Cyrena'ic school of philosophy, 272. 
Cyre'ne, founded, 220 ; subdued, by Cam- 

by'ses, 172. 
Cyril of Alexandria, St., 629. 

Jerusalem, St., 629. 

Cyropoedia, 269. 

Cyrus the Great, 148, 149, 150, 163; reign 

of, 164-170. 

the Younger, 188, 274. 

Cythe'ra, 191. 

Cyz'icus, battle of, 254 ; siege of, 482, 583. 

D. 

Dacia, 568, n. ; 606. 

Dacians, 365, 583. 

Da'gon, 107. 

Dal'ila, 107. 

Dalmatia, 541. 

Damas'cus, 56, 131, 134, 139. 

Damaspia, 187. 

Dan, city, 83, 173; son of Jacob, 89. 

Dan'aus, 192. 

Daniel, 121, 149-150, 165, 169, 189. 

Danubian army, 584 ; provinces, 588. 

Darl'us 1 Hystas'pis, 173-179 ; anger of, 

229, 230, 232. 

11 No thus, 187, 188. 

in Codomannus, 189, 292 ; death 

of, 297. 
the Mede, regent at Babylon, 

16S-170. 
Da'tis, 179, 230, 231. 
Dathy, Irish king, 609. 
David, 77, 108-110. 
Deb'bora, 104. 

Debtor, law of, and creditor, 3484 
Deceb'alus, =68. 



INDEX. 



64: 



Deceli'a, occupied by Peloponnesians, 

2C 3- 
Decem'virate, 355. 
Decem'virs, 357, 358. 
Dec'imus Brutus, 523, 525. 
Deciphering of the Egyptian language, 30. 
De'cius, emperor, 583, 584. 
Decius Mus, self-sacrifice of, 373. 
Decumce, or tithes, 445, n. 
Dedication, feast of, in, 311. 
Degeneracy of the Persians, 170. 
Dtj'oces, 162, n. 
Dej6t'arus, or Deiotarus, 519. 
Delenda est Carthago, 437. 
*' Delight of the human race," Titus, 564. 
Dc'los, island, 191 ; confederacy of, 239, 

243. 
Del phi, temple of, 201, 314, 315, 321, 343, 

344- 
Delphic oracle, 201, 343, 344; temple, 

201-203. 
Delta of the Nile, dimensions of, 29. 
Deluge, 23, 24. 
Dem'adcs, 287. 
Demara'tus, father of Tarquinius Priscus, 

33<5. 

Deme'trius 1 Soter, 312. 

■ 11 Nicator, 312, 313. 

Phalt/reus, 306. 

Demi-gods, 201. 

Deminrgi, 316. 

Democracy, rise of, 212, 218; full-blown 
Athenian. 242 ; restored, 257. 

Demoph'ilus, 443. 

Demos, picture of the Athenian, 261. 

Demos' thenCs, the general, 253. 

, the orator, 286-287, 291, 

292, 323. 

Demotic writing, 29, 30. 

Denta'tus, L., Sic, 356, 357. 

Depravity of the Egyptians, 69 ; of As- 
syrians and Babylonians, 155 ; at Rome, 
446. 

Der'ceto, goddess of Ascalon, 126. 

Desert, Israelites in the, 97. 

of Gedrosia, 299. 

of Khorassan' and Seistan', 167. 

Despots, or tyrants, 211. 

Deuca'lion, 193. 

Devas. or Ahuras, 159. 

Dialects, Attic, Ionic, Doric, ./EQl'ic,2oo. 

Dicasteries, or Athenian jury-courts, 242. 

Dicasts, 272. 

Dictator, the first, 348, n. 

Didius Julianus, 577. 

Di'do, or Elissar, 77, 78. 

D'd'ymus of Alexandria, 629. 

Diocletian, 588, 589. 

Diogenes the Cynic, 291, 

, Athenian envoy, 433. 

Diomc'des, 194, 195. 

Dion Cassius, 581. 

Dionysiac festivals, 262, 263. 

Dionys'ius, or Bacchus, 201, 262. 

• , tyrant of Syracuse, 394. 

the Younger, 394, 395. 

Di&s'polis the Great, 36, n. 

Discipline, Roman, 390; restored by 
Scipio, 438, 442 ; by Marius, 463. 

Dispersion of the Israelites, 170. 



Distress at Pome, 367. 

Dithyramb, 261, 262, 263, 

Divorce at Rome, 446. 

Doctor Maximus , St. Jerome, 628, n. 

DolabeKla, 487, 527. 

Domitian, 565-567. 

Domitius, L. \henobarbus, 508. 

Dorian colonies, 200. 

Dorians, 103, 198, 200, 252. 

Doric architecture, 258 ; colonies arid 

dialect, 200. 
Doris, 191, 198. 
Dorus, 193. 

Double cave of Machphela, 93. 
Dra'co, 214 
Drama at Athens, 262-265 ; satyric, 263; 

Roman, 616, 617. 
Drangia'na, 167, 298. 
Drep'anum, battle of, 401. 
Drill of the Roman legionaty, 386. 
Druids massacred in Mona, 557. 
Drusus, son of Livia, 542, 543, 544. 

, Tiberius, 546. 

, M. L., the opponent of Gracchus, 

456. 
Duilius, 398. 
Dumbarton, 609, n. 
Duum/yirs, 335, 384. 
Dynasties of Manetho, 31 ; xi, 37 ; xn, 

38 ; xiv, 41 ; xviii, 43-46 ; xix, 46-51 ; 

xx, 51, 52 ; xxi, 53; xxn, 53. 

E. 

Eagles, Roman, 406, n. ; 542. 

Easter, 561, 606; release of prisoners at, 
606. 

Eastern Empire, 559, 610-611 ; golden 
age of, 611. 

Ebor'acum (York), 578. 

Eburo'nes, 504, 505. 

Ecbat'ana, 179. 

Ecclesia, 216, 218. 

Eclipse, effects of an, 247, 253, 

Ecno'mus, battle of, 399. 

Edessa, 509. 

Edict of Darius theMede, 169; of Cyrus, 

_i7o; of Darius 1, 176; of Milan, 592. 

E'dlles, 351. 

Edissa. See Esther, 182. 

Edom, 117. 

Edomites, 109, 114. 

Education among the Spartans, 207, 208 ; 
at Athens, 269, 270. 

Ege'ria, 333. 

Egc'ta, 252. 

Egypt, 26; land and fertility, 29 ; social 
life in, 35, 43, 49, 50; united, 35; dis- 
membered, 35, 36 ; desolated by As- 
syrians, 137, 13S; by Nabuchodonosor, 
144; conquered by Cambyses, 171. 

Egyptian — writing, 29, 30 ; language de- 
ciphered, 30, 70; history, epochs of, 
32 ; priests, 63, 64 ; warriors, 59, 64 ; 
kings and princes, 64 ; code and legis- 
lation, 65; religion, 66-69; depravity, 
69; literature and art, 70, 71. 

Egyptians — ancient, 29-71 ; classes of, 63, 
64 ; ill treated by Cambyses, 172, n.j 
independent, 187. 



644 



INDEX. 



Elam, 26, 83, 123. 

Elamites, 83, 125. 

Elate'a, 288. 

Elath, no. 

Electus, 577. 

Elea'zar, high-priest, 100; the martyr, 

310. 
Eleatic school of philosophy, 223. 
Eliachim, 140, 141. 
Elephan'tine, 59. 
Eleu'sis, mysteries of, 406. 
Eli'as, 115-116. 
Eliezer, 86. 
Elis, 191,1203. 
Elissar, or Dido, 77, 78. 
Elyma'is, 26 ; temp.e of, 311. 
Emath, or Hamath, 56, 131, n. ; 133 135. 
Einer' 'itus , 385. 

Emperor, Augustus becomes, 537, 538. 
Empire and the barbarians, 575 ; offered 

for sale, 577. 
Enamelling upon brick, 154. 
Engines, military, 304. 
En'na, 443. 
En'nius, 617. 
Enoch, 19. 
Enos, 19. 

Epaminon'das, 279-282. 
Eph'esus, 200; school of art at, 320; St. 
j John at, 566; council of, 611. 
Eph'ors, 207. 
Ephraim, patriarch, 91. 
Ephrem, St., 629, 626. 
Epicte'tus, 325. 
Epicurean sect, 325. 
Epicu'rus, 325. 
Epidau'rus, 205, 315. 
Epipha'nius, St., 629. 
EpTp'olse, 419, 420. 
EpI'rus, 191, 220, 379. 
Epistles ot — Cicero, 618; Pliny, 622 ; Sts. 

Basil and Gregory, 626. 
Eplt'ades, 250. 
Epitaph on the tomb of Darius, 174 ; of 

Cornelia, 457; of Sulla, 476. 
Equestrian order, or equites (knights), 
337> 34o, 34*i 360, 361, n. ; 386, 456, 499. 
Era — of Alexandria, 21, n. ; of Antioch, 
21; Christian, 543, n. ; Olympic, 203, n. 
Erech, or Arach, now Warka, 124, n. 
Eretria, 228. 
Eretrians, 229. 
Erechtheum, 260. 
Erin, 565. 
Eryx, 402. 
Esau, 87, 88, 89. 
Esdras, 185, 186. 

Essex, country of the Trinobantes, 553. 
Esther, 182-184; Book of, 182. 
Etham, in. 
Ethbaal, 77, 79. 
Ethiopia, 25, n. ; 26, 54. 
Ethiopian rule in Egypt, 55-57. 
Ethiopians, 76. 

Ethnographic table of Genesis x, 26. 
Etruria, conquests in, 376; veterans of 

Sulla in, 475, n. 
Etrurians, 467. 
Etruscan, 328 ; science, 337; force, 341, n. 



Etruscans, 327, 328, 346, 347, 349 ; join 

the Samnites, 376. 
Euboe'a, 191,245. 
Eu'clid, 325. 
EuclI'des, 272. 
Eudox'ia, 615, 616. 
Eugenius, emperor, 605. 
Eu'menes, king of Per'gamus, 428,^433, 

434. 435- 

, general of Alexander, 302. 

Eumen'ides , The, a tragedy, 264. 

Eunomian heretics, 626. 

Eunuchs, power of, 184. 

Eunus, 443. 

Eupatrids, or nobles, 213, 214, 215. 

Euphrates, quays along the, 148 ; water 

of, drawn off, 168. 
Eu'polis, 247, 266 
Eurip'ides, 265. 
Eurybl'ades, 233, 235, n. 
Eurym'edon, battle of, 242. 

, general 253. 

Eurys'thenes, 205. 
Eurys'theus, 198. 
Euse'bius of Csesare'a, 629. 
Eutropius, the author, 621. 

, the statesman, 610. 

Eutychian heresy, 6u. 

Eve, 16, 17, 18. 

Evil-Mer'odach, 148. 

Expedition of Athenians to Sicily, 253— 

253- 
Ex'odus, 96. 

Extortion, de repetendis, 455, n. 
Excavations of Assyrian mounds, 127, 

128 ; at Carthage, 439, 440, n. 
Eze'kiel, 79, 154. 



Faberius, 526. 

Fa'bia Gens (Fabian family), or the 

Fatal, 353. 354- 
Fabius Ambustus, sons of, 36. 

Ka;so, 353. 

Maximus Cunctator, 413. 

Rullianus, master of the horse, 



375- 



Fable of the Belly and the Members, 350. 

Fabricius, embassy of, 380. 

Falerian schoolmaster, 302. 

Falerii, town of, taken by Camillus, 362. 

Fall of man, the, 17. 

Family of Augustus, 543. 

Famine in Egypt, 91 . 

Farnesian Bull, group of, 320. 

Fasces, the, 345, 346. 

/•asti, 614. 

" Father of his country," Augustus, 539; 

Vespasian, 563. 
Faus'tulus, 329. 
Fayoum, 39. 
Felix, intruder, 597. 
Fetiales, 336 ; Fetialis, 376.' 
Few, government of the, 211, 212. 
Fidc'nse, 335. 
Fimbria, 472. 
Fire, great — at Rome under Nero, 557, 

553. 
Fish-god, 74. 
Five Hundred, senate of, 218. 



INDEX. 



645 



Plamen Dialis, 334. 
Flameris, institution of, 334. 
Flaminian Way, or road, 3S5, 405, 
Flamini'iius, L., act of cruelty of, 433. 
, T. Q., victor at Cynos- 

ceph'alse, 426; proclaims Grecian inde- 
pendence, 426. 
Flaminius, C., defeated a>t Trasime'nus, 

412. 
, Q„ defeats the Macedonians, 

426. 
Flavian emperors, the, 567, n. 
Flavian, St., 604. 

Flavius, Cn., publishes a calendar, 377. 
Fleet, the Romans build a, 397. 
Fleets, Roman, destroyed by storms, 400, 

401, 402. 
Flood, the, 23; its universality relative, 

23, 24, n. 
Flora'lia, spectacle of the, 446. 
Florus, 561, 621. 
Fcedus, a treaty, 384. 
Forks, Caudine, 375. 
Forum Julii (Frejus), 541. 
Four Hundred, senate of, 218. 
Franchise, Latin, ox jus Latii, 372, 468; 

Roman, 372, 373, 383, 384, 467, 621. 
Franks, 582, 597, 613. 
Fritigern, 601, n. 

Fulvia, wife of Clodius and Antony, 530. 
Fulvius Nobilior, 428. 
Funditores, 388. 
Funeral oration by Pericles, 246. 



Gabaa, 140. 

Gabaonites, 102. 

Gabii, capture of, 342. 

Gabinian law, the, 480, 481. 

Gabinius, A., tribune, 480; consul, 500. 

Gad, patriarch, 89. 

Gades, or Ca'diz, 76. 

Gainas, 610. 

Galatia, 315, 481. 

Galatian war, 428. 

Galatians, 428. 

Galba, emperor, 558, 559. 

, Ser. Sul., 441. 

Galea, 387. 

Galen, 325. 

Gale'rius, 588, 589. 

Galilee, 413. 

Gallse'cians, 430. 

Gallia CisalJ>i'na, 364, n. 

Gallic land, 406. 

" Gallic tumult," 369, 370, 404. 

Gallitimus, 584, 585. 

Gallus, emperor, 584. 

, governor of Syria, 561. 

Gardens, hanging, 146. 

Gaul, Cisalpine, 376, 429; Transalpine, 
501-508; invaded by barbarians, 574, 
5S8, 609. 

Gaulish inroads, 314, 363, 364, 368. 

Gauls, 30S; invade Italy, 364; join th». 
Samnites, 376. 

Ga'za, 107, 119, 135; captured by Alex- 
ander, 295. 

Gazer, 111. 



Gebal, or Byblus, 74. 

Gedeon, 105-106. 

Gedrosia, 299. 

Gela subdued by Carthage, 394. 

Gelboe, Mount, 109. 

Ge'lon, 393. 

Gena'bum (Orleans), 505. 

Genauni, 542. 

Gen'esis, 81, 11. 

Gens, or family, 353; gentes, families, 333. 

Genseric, 612, 615, 616. 

Gentile, or family name, 332, n. 

Genucius, tribune, 369. 

Geography, works on, 574. 

Gergovia, 506. 

German'icus, 546, 547, 548. 

Germans, 542, 574, 575, 581, 583, 588. 

Germany, invasion of, 504, 505 ; Roman 

influence in, 548. 
Gerrha, 237. 
Gessen, 92. 

Gessoriacum {Boulogne), 552. 
Geta, 578, 579. 

Getse conquered by Darius, 178. 
Ghizeh, 33. 

Glabrio, M. Acilius, 485. 
Gladiatorial shows, 606 ; suppressed, 607. 
Gladia'tors, war of the, 479. 
Gldd'ius, 387. 

Glaucia, demagogue, 465, 466. 
Glaucus of Chios, 226. 
Glyce'rius, 616. 
Gd'bryas, 178. 
Gomates, or the Pseudo-Smerdis, 173, 

174, n. 
Gomer, 26. 

Gomorra, 82 ; destruction of, 84. 
Good, the, 212. 
Good Goddess, or Cyb'ele, worship of, 

446. 
Gordian i, ii, iii, 583: 
Gothic language, or Moeso-Gothic, 

601, n. 
Gordian knot, 292. 
Gordium, 293. 
Gorgias, 270, 322. 

Gospel, diffusion of the, 549, 622, 630, 632, 

633 : 
Gothic fleet destroyed, 595. 
Goths, 582, 583, 585, 588, 600, 601, n.; 

602, 606, 623. 
Gozan, 135. 

Grac'chi, their youth, 451-452; Caius, 

454-457 '» Tibe'rius, 452, 453. 
Gracchus, Tib. Sempronius, father of 

the tribunes, 430. 
Grcecia Magna, 220. 
Granicus, battle of, 292. 
Gratian, 599, 600, 602, 603. 
Grecian— race, 157, 158, 192; legendary 

character of early — history, 192 ; rise 

of— literature, 200; characteristics of, 

204 ; games, 203. 
Greece, history of, 191-321 ; the teacher 

of Komc, 437. 
Greek art, last period of, 319-321. 
— ; colonies in Asia Minor, 199, 200; 

in Italy, 220. 
Greeks in Egypt, 63 ; faint-heartednessof 

the, 232. 



646 



IND£X. 



Gregory Nazianzen, St., 600, 626. 

xin reforms the Julian calendar, 

521. 

of Nyssa, 626, 631. 

Thaumaturgus, 626. 

Grotefend, 128. 
Guebers, 160. 
Gylip'pus, 253. 

H. 

Hab'acuc, 120. 

Ha'drian, 570-573, 624. 

Hse'mus, Mount, 178. 

Halicarnas'sus, 200, 236. 

Hall of Columns, 46. 

Ha'lys River, boundary between Media 

and Lydia, 162, 165. 
Ham, or Cham, 22, 25; race of, 26, 157. 
Ha'math, or Emath, kingdom and city 

of, 56, 131, n. ; 133, 135. 
Hamil'car, 395. 
Hamilcar Barca in Sicily, 402-403 ; puts 

down the mercenaries, 406 ; his hatred 

of Rome, 407 ; in Spain, 407. 

, Carthaginian officer, 429: 

Hammarubi, 125. 

Hamitic race, 26, 32. 

Hanging gardens, 146. 

Hannibal, 408, 409 ; cause of his failure, 

412 ; recalled from Italy, 423 ; defeated 

at Zama, 424; his last years and death, 

425. 
Hanno, 415. 
Hannon, 135. 
Haran, 82, 89. 
Harem, 49, 182. 
Harmo'dius, 217. 
Harmosts, Spartan, 276. 
Has'drubal, Hannibal's brother-in-law, in 

Spain, 408. 
Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, 421. 

, son of Gisco, 422. 

Hasta, velitaris , 387 ; hastae, 388, n. 

Hastati, 386, 387, 388, 3S9. 

Hatasu, Queen, 43, 44. 

Haz'ael, 117. 

Hebrew — text of the Scriptures, 16, n. ; 

20 ; meaning of the word, 80, n. 
Hebrews, the, 82-121. 
He'bron, 90, 93, 109. 
Hecatae'us of MUe'tus, 266. 
Hector, 394, 195. 
Helen, 194. 
He'li, 104, 108. 
Hel'las, 191. 
Hellen, 193, 201. 
Helle'nes, 191, 193. 
Hellenic races, 26 ; people, 193. 
Hellenism among the Jews, 312 
Hellenizing, 307, 554. % 
Heliogabalus, 580. 
He'los, 198. 

Helots, 200, 206, 209 ; revolt of the, 242. 
Helvetii, 463, 503. 
Henoch, city, 18. 

• , patriarch, 19. 

Henry vni, 565. 

Hephses'tion, 300. 

Hera, or Here (Juno), 201 ; her statue by 

Polycle'tus, 260. 



Heracle^a, battle of, 379. 

Heraclidsi, return of, 198. 

Hercte, Mount, 402. 

Heresies, 623. 

Hercula'neum, 564, n, 

Her'cules, 193. 

Heren'nius, 375. 

Her-Hor, 53. 

Hermanaric, 601. 

Her'mes, or Mercury, 201. 

Hermi'one, 315. 

Hernicans, or Hernici, 370 

Herod Agrippa, 553, 554. 

Hero'des Atticus, 576. 

Herod'otus., 33, 57, n. ; 58, 60, 62, 63, 144, 
165, 173, 174, 178, 200, 218 228, 229, 231, 
2 35> n - > analysis of his history, 367- 
268. 

He'roes, 193 ; eponymi, 193. 

Hertfordshire, 553. 

Heroic age, 193. 

Heros'tratus, 225. 

Heruli, 616. 

Hesus, 580, 

Hezekl'ah, 56; reign of, n3, 136, 137. 

Hibernia, or Ireland, 565. 

Hiempsal, 458. 

Hieratic writing, 29, 30. 

Hl'ero, 39-^.397^ 4°3- 

Hieroglyphic writing, 29, 30; hiero- 
glyphics, 29, 30. 

Hila/rion, St., 630. 

Hilary of Poitiers, St., 628. 

Him/era, siege of by Hamilcar, 393; 
subdued by Carthage, 396. 

HimiFco, 394. 

Hincks, 128. 

Hindoo Koosb, 26, 158. 

Hindostan', 157. 

Hippar'chus, 217. 

Hippias, the rhetor, 270. 

— ■ tyrant, 217. 

Hippo, 628. 

Hinp6c'rates, 247. 

Hi'rara, 77, 109. 

Hirpini, 467. 

Hirtius, consul, 528, 529. 

Hispania, C iter 2 or &= Ulterior, 430. 

Histias'us of Miletus, 227, 228. 

History, slow rise of — among the Greeks, 
266 ; early Roman — unreliable, 328. 

Hittite empire, 47, 142, n. 

Hittites, or Khatti, 47, 129, 130, 131. 

Holofernes, 139-141. 

Holy Ghost, 543, 549, 626. 

Holy of Holies, 486, n. 

Holy Scripture, subject-matter of, 21, n. 

Homer, 195, 196, 200. 

Homeric— poems, 196; picture of life 
and manners, 196-397; polity, 196; 
society, 197 ; civilization, 197. 

Honora'tus, St., 629, 631. 

Honorius, 606-610. 

Hoplites, heavy-armed foot-soldiers, 216. 

Hor, Mount, 100. 

Horace, 540, 639, 620. 

Horatii and Curiatii, 334, 335. 

Horatius, trial of, 335. 

Horatius Codes, 346, 347. 

Horeb, Mount, 95. 



INDEX. 



647 



Hortensialex, 370, 378. 

Hortnnsius opposes the Gabinian law, 
481 ; also the Manilian, 485 ; his elo- 
quence, 489. 

Horus, 66, 67, 68. 

Hostilius Mancinus, 442. 

Huns, 603, 606, 610, 613. 

Hydas'pes, 298. 

Hyksos, or Shepherd Kings, 41-4'?. 

Hyllus, 198. 

Hyphasis, 298. 

Hypsas'us, 511. 

Hyrcania, 159, n. ; 167, 298, 309. 

Hyrcanians, 574. 

Hyrcanus, John, reign of, 313. 

, brother of Aristobulus, 486. 

Hystas'pes, satrap, 184, 185. 

I. 

Iberian Peninsula. See Spain. 

Iberians, 26, 521, 522. 

Ibe'rus (Ebro), 408. 

Ib'ycus, 227. 

Icilian law, 354, n. 

Idolatry becomes general, 27. 

Idom'eneus, 194. 

Idume'ans, 144, 311. 

Ierne, Iernis, or Ireland, 565. 

Ic'etas, 395. 

Ignatius, St., of Antioch, 570. 

Ignobiles, ignobilis, 447. 

Iliad, 195-196. 

Ilium, or Troy, 194. 

Illyria, 613. 

Illyrian pirates, 404. 

Illyrians, 285, 291. 

Imperator, or emperor, 538. 

Imperium, or sovereign military power, 

„ 367, 513, 522, 538. 

In'arus, 185. 

Independence, Jewish, 312. 

India occupied by the Aryans, 158 ; 
occupied by Darius, 177, 178 ; invaded 
by Alexander, 298; Christianity preach- 
ed in, 622. 

Indians, 158. 

Indo-European race, 157, 158. 

Indra (thunder), 159. 

Indus, valley of the, 158 ; river, 299. 

Inexpiable war, 409. . 

Informers, 549. 

Inscription of Darius at Behistun, 171, n. ; 

t I75- 

In'subres, 405 ; subdued, 429. 

Intercedo, intercession, right of, 350. 

Interpreters in Egypt, 58, n. 

Interreges, interrex, 333, 475. 

I'on, 193. 

Io'nia, 201. 

Ionian colonies, 200, 226, 227; 

Ionians— in Egypt, 57; reduced by Cyrus, 

167, 226-229. 
Ionic revolt, 227; architecture, colonies 

and dialect, 200 ; school of philosophy, 
„ 223 ; the Ionic, 228-229. 
Iph'jtus, 203. 
Ipsus, battle of, 305. 
Irak-Arabi, 147. 



Trad, 18. 

Iran, i^S, 159, n. 

Iranians, 158, 159, 160. 

Ireland, 565 ; conversion of, 566, 572. 

Irenje'us, St., 622, 625. 

Irish — the ancient, 565 ; inroads, 609. 

Isaac, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90. 

Issachar, 89. 

Isse'us, 322. 

Isaiah, 119, 135, 136, 154. 

Ishtar, or Rhea, 146. 

Isis, 66, 67. 

Ismael, 83. 

Isoc'rates, 322. 

Israel, name given to Jacob, 89. 

> kingdom of, 112-118; relative 

strength of Judah and, 112. 
Israelites, the, 82-121 ; origin of the word, 

8r, n. ; their increase in Egypt, 93; 

captivity, 135. 
Issus, battle of, 294. 
Isthmian games, 203, 216. 
Istria, Roman arms carried into, 408, 431. 
Italian race, 26, 157, 158, 327. 
Italians enrolled among the tribes, 472. 
Italy, geography and inhabitants of, 327, 
Ith'aca, 191, 195. 
Itho'me, Mount, 242, 282. 



Ja'bel, 19. 

Ja'bes, 108. 

Jabin, 103, 104, 105. 

Jacob, 87-93. 

Jaculatores, 388. 

Jaddus, 295. 

Ja'el, 105. 

Janic'ulum, fortress on the, 336; flag on 
the, 341. 

Ja'nus, temple of, 334; closed, 403, 542. 

Japheth, 22, 25, 26; race of, 26, 157. 

Ja'red, 19. 

Ja'son, 193. 

Ja'van, 26. 

Jav'elin, 388. 

Jebu'sites, 109. 

Jeconl'ah, 121, 144. 

JehO'vah Sabaoth, 143. 

Je'hu, king, 132. 

Jephte, 106. 

Jereml'ah, 120, 143, 168. 

Jeri'cho, capture of, 101, 102. 

Jerobo'am, 53, 112. 

Jerusalem, 109, 119, 121, 185-187, 486; 
destroyed by Titus, 561-563. 

Jesus Christ ,543, 549. 

Jethro, father-in-law of Moses, 95. 

Jew, use of the word, 81, n. 

Jewish nation and Church restored, 170; 
independence, 312; religion, 569; last 
revolt, 572, 573. 

Jews, persecuted byAntiochus Epiphanes, 
310,311; in Asia Minor, 554 ; at Rome, 
554; slaughter of, 561-563; their in- 
trigues, 569, 570; since Hadrian, 573. 

Jez'abel, 77, 115, 116. 

Jez'rael, 115, 116. 

Jo'ab, 109. 

Jo'achaz, 60. 

Jo'akim, 61, 120, 121, 143. 



6.J.S 



INDEX. 



Jo'akim, or Alcimus, high-priest, 312. 

Jo'akin, 121, 148. 

Jc/as, 116, 117. 

Jo'atham, 117. 

Joctan, 26. 

John, St., the evangelist, 566. 

Joiada, 116. 

Jonas, 118, 126, 132. 

Jonathan, 312. 

J Oram, 116. 

Jordan, passage of, 100. 

Josaba, 116. 

Josaphat, 114, 115. 

Joseph, 42, 89-93. 

Jose'phus, 295. 

Josi'ah, 60; reign of, 120. 

Josue, 100-103. 

Jove, or Jupiter, 201. 

Jo'vian, 599. 

Ju'ba, 520. 

Jubal, 19. 

Judah, son of Jacob, 89, 92. 

, tribe of, 109, 113. 

, kingdom of, 112-T21 ; relative 

strength of and Israel, 112, 133. 
Judas Maccabe'us, 311, 312. 
Jude'a, kingdom ot, under the Maccabees, 

3i3- . 

Judices, judges, 480. 

Judicia, tribunals, 455. 

Judges, the Jewish, 103-T08 ; the Roman 

knights made, 480. 
Judith, 140, 141 ; Book of, 139, n. 
Jugera, acres, 351. 
jfugum, yoke, ^Equians pass under the, 

356- 
Jugurtha, 458-461. 
Julia, wife of Marius, 495, 496. 

, daughter of Augustus, 543, n. 

, granddaughter of Augustus, 543, n.; 

544- 

, Pompey's wife, 499, 511. 

lex, 467. 

Julian calendar, the, 521. 
Julian the Apostate, 596-599, 623. 
Julianus Didius, 577. 
Julius Nc'pos, 616. 

Seve'rus, 572. 

Junius Rusticus, 576. 

Juno, 201; temple of at Sa'mos, 227; 

geese sacred to, 366, n. 
Tupiter, 201. 
jupiter Amnion, temple of, 37. 

Sia'tor, 331. 

jfus commcrcii and connubii, 374, n. ; 

Latii, 373, 385; imaginum, 447. 
Justin, the historian, 366, 417, n. ; 621. 

, St., 574, 576, 622, 624. 

Juvenal, 446, n. ; sketch, 621. 

K. 

Kagabu, 48. 

Karnak, 44, n. 

Kashgar, 167. 

Kent, 553- 

Kerneter, the Egyptian hades, 69. 

Ketura, 87. 

Khabour, or Gozan, 135. 

Khatti, or Kheta (Hittites), 129. 

Khem, or Cham, 32, n. ; 37, 66. 



Khepra, 67, n. 

Khorsabad (Beth-Sargina), 127, 135, 

153. 
Khufu, or Shufu (Che'ops), 33. 

Kileh-Sherghat, 129. 

Kiuea-Scuit, or Scoit (Celto-Scythians), 

572. 
King, the Egyptian, 64. 
Kingdom of Judah, 112-121. 
Kingdoms, the two separate of Judah 

and Israel, 113-118. 
Kkcta, the, or Hittites, 47. 
Knights, the Roman, 445, 447, 448 ; made 

judges, 455, 499. 
Koyunjik fNinive), 135, 138, 153. 
Kurdistan , 161. 
Kurneh, 44, n. 
Kush, 38. 

L. 

La'ban, 86, 88, 89. 

Lab'arum, 591, 592, n. 

Laborosoarchod, 148. 

Labyne'tus, 162, 165. 

Labyrinth, the, 40. 

1 aced5e' / mon. See Sparta. 

1 .acedasmonians. See Spartans. 

l.achis, 117, 119, n. 

Lacinian promontory, 378 ; bronze tablets 

set up on the, 423. 
Laconia, 191 ; population of, 206. 
Laconians, 206. 
Lactantius, 624, 629. 
Lce'lius, 420, 453. 
Lretus, 577. 

Lcevi'nus, M. Valerius, 379. 
Lag'ides, 306. 
La'mech, son of Mathusael, 18. 

Mathusala, 19. 

Lam'achus, 252. 

Land, the public, 350; monopolizing of 

the at Rome, 450; national, 351, 451; 

quiritary, 356, 451. 
Laoc'o&n, 320. 
Laod'ice, 307. 
Lacdice'a, 307. 
Lamps, feasts of the, 57. 
Lamp'sacus, 241. 
Language — Egyptian, 30, 70 ; Hebrew, 

440; Phoenician, 440,565; Punic, 440, 

565. . 

Lanu'vium, 373. 

Lars Porsena, 346, 347. 

Larsa, 125. 

La'sus, 261, 262. 

Latin confederacy of cities, 329, 342; 
name, 3S3; league, 370; war, 372. 

Latins, 327, 328, 372, 374, 456, 467. 

LatTnus, king, 329. 

La'tium, 329; subjugation of, 373; settle- 
ment of, 373. 

Lavin'ia, 329. 

Lavin'ium, 329. 

Law, of debtor and creditor, 342 ; the 
Publilian and lcilian, 354, n. ; Teren- 
tilian, 356 ; Canuleian, or of inter- 
marriage, 360; Ogulnian, 378; Horten- 
sian, 372,378 ; Gabinian,48o; Manilian, 
485; of majesty, 549. 



INDEX. 



649 



Laws of the twelve tables, 355 ; the 

Valerian and Horatian, 358 ; the Pub- 

lilian, 370. 
Lawrence, St., 584. - 
Leb'anon, cedars of, 74, n. 
Legendary character of early Grecian 

history, 192. 
Legends of early Roman history, 328. 
Leges frumentaricz , 455, n. 
Legion, the Roman, 386; the imperial 

legions, 541; those on the Rhine, 541, 

546; on the Danube, in the East, 560; 

remodelled by Constantine, 593. 
Legionaries, 385. 
Legislation of Lycurgus, 207 ; of Draco, 

214; of Solon, 215; of Sulla, 475. 
Len'tulus, accomplice of Catiline, 491, 

492. 
- Marcellinus, consul, Caesar's 

opponent, 508. 

Gaetulicus, 551. 



Leo 1, .emperor, 611. 

— — , St., the Great, 6n, 615, 629. 

xiii, Pope, 440. 

Leonnatus, 302. 

Leon'idas at Thermopylae, 233, 234. 

, the martyr, 624. 

Leotych'idtis, 237. 

Lep'idus the triumvir, 477, 525, 529, 530, 

_ 532, 533- 

Leptis, 462. 

Lerins, monastery of, 631. 

Lesbos, 200, 227, 229, 239. 

Leuca'dians, 245. 

Leuc'tra, battle of, 280, 281. 

Le'vl, patriarch, 89. 

, the tribe of, 98. 

Levis armatures, 388. 

Levites, 114, 116, 117. 

Lex, 367, n. ; frumentaria, 466 ; Hor- 

tensia, 372, 378; Julia, 467; Plautia 

Papiria, 468. 
Libi'mus, 625, 627, 629, 630. 
Libe'rius, Pope, 596, 597. 
Library at Thebes, 48; at Ninive, 138; 

at Alexandria, 306, 519; at Per'gamus, 

443; of Vespasian, 563. 
Libya, 26, 60. 

Libyans subdued by Camby'ses, 172. 
Liby-Phoenicians, 76. 
Licin'ian Rogations, the, 366. 
Licin'ius Stolo, 367, 368. 
Licinius, colleague of Constantine, 591- 

t - 594 ' 

.Lictors, or guards, 345, 348, 520. 

Life — daily — .fanoble Roman, 446, 447. 

Liguria, 364, n. 

Ligurian tribes, 364; war, 429, 430. 

Lilybssum, 381 ; siege of, 401, 487. 

Lindus, 223. 

Literature — Egyptian, 70 ; Roman, 616- 

632. 
Liv-'ia., wife of Augustus, 539, 540, 544, 548. 
Livius Androni'cus, 617. 
Livius, M., consul, gains the battle of 

the Metaurus, 421. 
Liv'y, 366, 412, 415, n. ; 540 ; sketch, 620. 
Lobna, 119. 

Lo'cris, 191, 200, 243, 343. 
Locrians, 245. 



Long walls, 238, 244 

Longevity, decrease of human, 27. 

Longi'mis, 585. 

Lorica, 387. 

Lot, Abraham's nephew, 82, 84. 

Lot, election by, 242. 

Louis Philippe of France, 440. 

Louvre, Museum of the, 128, n. 

Lubim, 26. 

Lucan, 556; sketch, 621. 

Lucanians, 374, 382, 384, 467. 

Luceres, 332, 337. 

Lucretia, 344. 

Lucretius, 617, 618. 

Lucrinus, lake, 532. 

Lucullus, L. Licinius, 473, 482-484. 

Lud, 165, n. 

Ludi Magni, great games, 351. 

Lusitanians, 440; subdued, 441. 

Lustrum, 339, n. 

Lutetia (Paris), 505, 527. 

Luxor, 44, n. ; 45. 

Luxury, increase of among the Romans, 

446. 
Lycanthropy, 147, n. 
Lyce'um, the, 238,^270, 324. 
Lycians, 165, n. 
Lycur'gus, 205, 207. 
Lydia, 139, 165, 202, n., 226. 
Lydian civilization, 226. 
Lydians, 76. 

Lyric poetry, origin of, 221, 261, 262. 
Lysan'der, 254, 255, 256, 257. 
Lysias, the general, 311. 

, the orator, 322. 

Lysim'achus, 302, 303, 305, 307, 308, 314. 
Lysip pus, 320. 

M. 

MaccabS'an, or AsmonG'an, 310. 

Mac'cabSes, 310, n., 312. 

Macedonia, its inhabitants, 283; con- 
quered by Darius, 179 ; ravaged by the 
Celts, 314; a Roman province, 435. 

Macedonian heretics, 626; monarchy, 
284; phalanx, 284. 

Macedonians, 283. 284. 

Macedonians, heretic, 603. 

Machan'idas, 317. 

Machphelah, cave of, burial place of 
Abraham, Sarah, etc., 86,93. 

Macrl'na, 626. 

Macrl'nus, emperor, 579. 

Mft'cro, 551. 

Madai, 26, 161. 

Ma:cS'nas, 522, 534, 536. 

Maelius Sp., 359. 

Massia, 606. 

Maged'do, battle of, 6b, 120. 

Magi, or Magians, 161; massacre of, 174. 

Magian religion, 161. 

Magism, 160-161 ; 173. 

Magister eguituw, or master of the horse, 
348. 

Magna Grjecia, 220. 

Magne'ntius, 596. 

MagnG'sia, 241. 

Magnus, Pompey's title, 477. 



650 



INDEX. 



Mago, 394. 

, Hannibal's brother, 414. 

Magophonia, 174. 

Magorianus, emperor, 616. 

MaJael, 19. 

Mal'aga, occupied by Tyrians, 76. 

Malta, ,76; by Carthage, 

393. 

Mam'bre, oaks of, 82. 

Mamertiae prison, 336, 461. 

Mamertines, or Mamertini, 396-397. 

Mamma'a, 580, n. 

Manahen, 133, 134. 

Manas'ses, patriarch, 91. 

» ^ing, 119, 120, 141. 

, tribe of, 100, 105. 

MandS/ne, 163. 

Mane'tho, 31, n.; his list of kings and 
dynasties, 31. 

Manilian, law, 485. 

Manilius, tribune, 485. 

Manlius Capitolinus, 366, 367. 

— Torquatus, 370, 372. 

Cn. Vulso makes war on the 

Galatians, 428. 

" Nepos, 437. 

Manna, 97; ceased, 101. 

Mantine'a, 1st battle of, 251 ; 2d, 282 ; 3d, 
317,318. 

Manufactures, Egyptian, 64 ; Phoenician, 
^4, 78; Assyrian and Babylonian, 154. 

Maracan'da, now Samarcand', 298. 

Mar'athon, battle of, 230-231. 

Marcelirna, 631. 

Marcelll'nus, Lentulus, 508. 

Marcel'lus, Claudius, consul, Caesar's op- 
ponent, 513. 

, M., consul, takes Syracuse, 

417, 420. 

, nephew of Augustus, 543, n. 

Marcia, 577. 

Marcian, 611. 

Marcoman'ni, 547, 582. 

Marcus Aurelius, 325, 574-576, 624. 

Mardochai, 182, 184. 

Mardonius, 179, 230, 336, 237. 

Margiana, 157, 175. 

Marhabal, 414. 

Ma/rius, C., 460, 462, 469-472. 

the Younger, 474. 

Marmain, 50. 

Marobod'uus, 547. 

Marriage between patricians and plebe- 
ians, 360. 

Marrucinians, 467. 

Mars, 201 ; planet, 151, 152. 

Marsi, or Marsians, 374, 467. 

Marsic, or social war, 466, 468. 

Martin, St., 631. 

Martial, 621. 

Martyrology, the Roman, «6, n. 

Mary, the Mother of Jeaus, 543. 

Maspha, 106. 

Masinissa, 422, 434, 437. 

Massag'etae, 170. 

Massalia, or Massilia, now Marseilles, 
^founded, 193, 220, 444. 

Masaisylians, or Eastern Numidians, 422. 

Massylians, or Western Numidians, 422. 

Matgen, 77. 



MS/tho, 406. 

Mathusael, 18. 

Mathusala, 19. 

Mattathras,3io. 

Mauri taenia, 407. 

Mausole'um of Hadrian, now Castle of 
St. Angelo, 571. 

Maut, 67. 

Mavisel, 118. 

Maxen'tius, emperor, 591, 592. 

Maxim'ian Her'cules, colleague of Dio- 
cletian, 588, 589. 

Max'imin, emperor, 583. 

Maximin, Augustus, 591, 593. 

Maximus, a usurper, 603. 

Mean, the, 212. 

MGdes, 26, 142 ; before Cyaxares, 161 ; 
degeneracy, dress of, 162, 164, 171. 

Media, 159, n. ; Magna, 162 ; Persians 
subject to, 164, 298. 

Median monarchy, 162-163. 

Medians, 125. 

Medimnus, 215, n. 

Medinet Abou, 44, 52. 

Mediola'num, taken by the Romans, 406. 

Medism, 164, 240, 

Medizing; 237. 

Medo-Persian empire, 161-189. 

Medo-Scythic, 159, 175. 

Medu'sa, 259, n. 

Megaby'zus, 187. 

Meg'Sra, 212, 243. 

Megarian revolutions, 212. 

Megarians, 245. 

Megar'ic school of philosophy, 272. 

Meg'arid, ravaged by Pericles, 246. 

Meg'aris, 191. 

Megalop'olis, building of, 281, 318. 

Melcarth, temple of, 76, 77. 

Melchizedek, 83. 

Mete'ager, 193. 

MeKita, or Malta, 76. 

Melitius, St., 626, 627. 

M6Kito, apologist, 624. 

Melos, 245; captured by Athenians, 252. 

Mello, in. 

Memnon, king of Ethiopia, 195. 

Memorabil' ia, 269. 

Memphian monarchy, 32-36. 

Memphis, 32, 33. 

Menan'der, 321, 322. 

Menapii, 503, 505. 

Mencheres, or Menkaura, 33, 34. 

Menela'us, 194. 

Menenius Agrippa, 348. 

Menemra, 36. 

Menephtha, 50. 

MS'nSs, 32. 

Menthept, or Mentuhotep, 37. 

Mentor the Rhodian, 180. 

Mercenary soldiers of Ty re , 76; Carth- 
age, 392 ; revolt of Carthaginian mer- 
cenaries, 406. 

Mercury, 301. 

. the planet, 151, 152. 

Merira. 36. 

Meri-Tum, 52. 

Merivale, 507, 524, 552. 

Merodach, god, 152. 

— — Baladan, king, 135. 



INDEX, 



651 



Mesopotamia, 104, 126, 569, 584. 

Mesraim, 26,32. 

Mess, the public, 207. 

Messaiah, first prophecy of the, 18. 

MessSTa, 511, 532. 

Messall'na, 554. 

Messa'na, 397, 398, 403. 

Messane, building of, 282. 

Messene, or Messenia, 191 ; subjugation 
of, 209; independence of, 282. 

Messenian, wars, 209, 242 ; state reestab- 
lished, 281, 282. 

Messenians, 242; at Naupac'tus, 245 ; at 
Sphacteria, 250. 

Messiah, 543. 

Metallurgy, knowledge of, among Baby- 
lonians, 154. 

Metaurus, battle of the, 421. 

Metellus Celer, tribune, 493. 

Macedonicus, 453. 

Numidicus, 459, 460. 

■ Pius, the adversary of Serto- 

rius, 478. 

Rex, 492. 

Scipio, 513. 

MethO'ne, siege of, 289. 

Mettius Fuffeitus, 335, 336. 

Curtius, devotion of, 367, 368. 

Miamennut, 56. 

Micip'sa, 458. 

Mi'das, 293. 

Midian, 95, 105-106. 

Midianite merchants, 90. 

Midianites, 100, 105, 106, 139. 

Migdol, city, 144. 

Milan, or Mediola'num, 406; capital, 388; 
edict of, 592. 

Mile'tus, 200, 228, 229, 239. 

Military, or consular, tribunes, 358, 

Milo, the Crotonian, 225. 

, the Roman, 501, 511-513. 

Miltl'adgs, 230, 231. 

, the apologist, 624. 

Milvian Bridge, battle of the, 592. 

Minerva, 201 ; temple of, at Rome, 344. 

Mi'nos, 193. 

Minturnnae, marshes of/470, 471. 

Minucius, consul, surrounded by the 
iEquians, 355. 

Mlse'nun, 541. 

Mithra (sunlight), 159. 

MithridS'tes VI, 469, 470, 472, 481-486. 

Mithridatic war, first, 472 ; second, 481 ; 
third, 482-486. 

Mne'mon, the vocal, 45, 46, n. 

Moab, 104. 

Moabites, 100, 109, 114, 121, 143, 144. 

MC/din, 310. 

Mce'ris, Lake, 39. 

Mona (Anglesey), 557. 

Monarchy, end of the, at Athens, 213; 
at Home, 321, 344. 

Monasticism, 630. 

Monogram of Christ, 593. 

Monotheism in the ascendant, 168, 176. 

Mons Scicer (Sacred Mount), first seces- 
sion to, 348; second, 358. 

Month, the Sun-God, 67, n. 

Monuments of Athens, 258. 

Moon, planet, 152. 



Moor-; 574. 

Monah, Mount, 562. 

Morea, 171. 

Morini, 503. 

Moses, 50, 94-100, 

Mosoch, 126. 

Mount Itho'me, 242; Hercte, 402; Aven- 
tine, settled, 336. 

Mountain. The, 217. 

Mucius Scsevola, the great jurist, 452. 

Mummius, 436, 437. 

Munych'ia, 238. 

Munda, battle of, 521. 

Murena, L. Licinius, 472. 

Murex, molusk, 74. 

Mursa, battle of, 596. 

Musculi, 305. 

Muse'um, Alexandrian College, 519, 527: 
British, 128. 

Mu'tina (Modena), battle of, 529. 

Mutiny, of Alexander's troops at Susa, 
299; near Sirmium, 587; quelled by 
Octavius, 536; of the legions on the 
Danubian and Rhenish frontiers, 546. 

Myc'ale, battle of, 237. 

Myce'nse, 193, 194, 198. 

Myos 241. 

Myrcinus, 228. 

Myrmidons, 194. 

My'ron, prose work of, 209. 

Myrtis, 262. 

MytilS'ne, 249. 

N. 

Nabis, 317. 

Nabona/dius, 148, 149, 150, 165. 

Nabopolossar, 61, 142, 143. 

Naboth's vineyard, 115, 116. 

Nabuchodonosor, 61, 79, 120, 121; reign 

of, 143-147; 152. 
Na'chor, 86. 
NS/dab, 114, 
Nse'vius, 617. 
Nahum, 138, 142. 
NaptVta, 43, 54. 
Nakr-Malcha, 144. 
Narbo, 444. 
Nasl'ca, Scipio, the murderer of Tib. 

Gracchus, 453, 
Nft'than, no. 
Nations, origin of, 26. 
Nau'cratis, 58, 63. 
Naupac'tus, 198. 
Naval victory of Duilius, 389. 
Navarino, bay of, 249. 
Nazianzus, 626. 
Neap'olis, site of, 374, n. 
IS'ebo, 152; temple of, at Borsippa, 152, 
Nebo, Mount. 109. 
Nechao, or Necko, 59-61, 142. 
Nectanebo, 283. 
Neferkara, 36. 
Nehemiah, 186, 187. 
Neith, 66. 

Nemean Garaw, 803. 
Ncmma, 69. 

Nephtali, patriarch, 89; tribe of, 105, 134. 
NS'pos, Cor., 415, n. 
Neptune, 201. 



652 



INDEX. 



Nergat, 130, 153. 
Neriglissar, 148. 
Nero, Consul, his march against Hasdru- 

bal, 421, 422. 
Nero, emperor, 555-559- 
Nerva, 567. 
New Tanis, 50. 
Nervii, 503, 505. 
Nesroch, 137. 
Nestor, 194. 
Nestorian heresy, 611. 
Ne sutor ultra crepidam, 320. 
Nial of the Hostages, 609. 
Nica'nor, 312. 
Nl'ce, council of, 594. 
Nicene, creed, 594. 
Nicias, 251, 253. 
Nicome'dGs in, last, king of Bithynia, 

469. 
Nicomedia, 583; capital, 588, 590. 
Niger, emperor, 577. 
Nike Apteros, temple of, 258. 
Nile, valley of, 29. 
Nim'rod, 124, 125, 126. 
Nimrud, mound of, 130, 132 ; palaces at, 

I 53- 
Nin, 130, 153. 
Ninias, 126. 
Ninive, 126, 129, 132, 135, 138; fall of, 

142. 
Nlnus, 126. 
Ninyas, 127. 
Ni'obe, group of, 319. 
Nis'ibis, 484, 599. 
Nito'cris, Egyptian, 34, 36. 
■ , daughter of Nabuchodnosor, 

148. 
Noah, 22, 25. 

No, 36, n.. No Ammon, 36, n., 138. 
Nobiles, (Nobility), nobilis, 447. 
— obi es, the Roman, 447; their jealousy 

of Csesar, 511 ; insolence of Caligula 

towards them, 552 ; cruelty of Domi- 

tian 556. 
Nod, land of, 18. 
Nola, plundered, 615. 
Nomarch, 66. 
Nome, 66; nomes, division of Egypt into, 

32. 
Norbanus, consul, 473. 
Novus homo, a new man, 447, 487. 
Nubia, 38. 

Numantia, destruction of, 442. 
Numa, Pompilius, 333-334. 
Numa's calendar, 334. 
Numidia, 407. 
Numerian, 587. 
Nti'mitor, 329. 
Nyssa, 626. 

O. 

Q'asis, 37, n.; of Ammon, 37, 172. 

Obelisk, 38; obelisks, 48. 

Ochoziah, 116. 

Ochus, 188, 189. 

Ocrea, 387. 

Octavia, wife of Anthony, 533. 

, daughter of Claudius, 554, 556 



Octavius Cffisar, 525, 527-539; Augustus, 

539-545- 
Oded, the prophet, 118. 
Oden&'thus, 585. 
Ode'on, 243. 
Odo'acer, 616. 
O'dyssey, 195. 

CEdipus at ColO'nus, a tragedy, 265. 
Oligarchy, or government of the few, 

211. 
Oligarchs, at Athens, 211 ; Corcyra, 249 ; 

at Rome, 313. 
Olyb'rius, 6r6. 
Olympia in Elis, 169, 203. 
Olympiad, first recorded, 192; an , 

203, n., 204. 
Olympias, 302. 
Olympic games, 203, 216. 
Olynthiacs, the, 286, 
Olynthians, 285-287. 
Olynthus, 250 ; fall of, 287. 
Omens, 402, n. 

One Hundred, Council of, 392. 
On Friendship, 453. 
Ophni, 108. 

Opim'ius, L.,456, 457, 459. 
Oppert, 128. 
Optimus, most excellent, title given to 

Trajan, 568. 
Oracles of Delphi, obscure, 202, n. 
Oration, funeral, by Pericles, 246 ; p>ro 

Manilla, 246 ; pro Rabirio^ 496 ; £ro 

Milone, 512, 513. 
Orations, against Verres, 489; against 

Catiline, 491, n.; theological, 626. 
Orators, Attic, 322. 
Oratory, Athenian, 322 ; Roman, 618 ; of 

St. Chrysostom, 628. 
Order of battle among the Romans, 385. 
Ordo Equestris, 455, 456. 
Oreb, 106. 

Oresteia, trilogy of the, 264. 
Ores' tes, son of Agamennon, 198. 

father of Augustulus, 616. 

Orchom'enus, battle of, 472. 

Orce'tes, 227. 

Origen, 580, n,, 622, 624. 

Oileans, 587, 613, 614. 

Ormazd, 159-160, 168, 175. 

Oro'des, 510. 

Orontes, valley of, 73, n» 

Or'pheus, 580. 

Orthosia, 74. 

Osarkon, 55. 

Osee, king, 56, 134, 135. 

, prophet, 118. 

Osl'ris, 66, 67. 
Ostia, 336. 

Ostorius Scap'ula, 553. 
Ostracism, 219. 
Ostrogoths, 600, 601, 614. 
Ota'nes, 174. 
Othniel, 103. 
Otho, emperor, 556, 559. 
Othry'ades, 210. 
Ovid, 540 ; sketch, 620. 
Ozi'ah, or Azari'ah, 117, 
Ozolian Ld'cris, 191. 



INDEX. 



65; 



P, 



Pachomius, St., 631. 

Pacuvius, 617. 

Padua sacked, 615. 

Paganism, decline of, 593; revival of, 
593. 598 ; fall of, 6o3. 

Pagans, origin of the name, 608. 

Painted Porch, Puerile Stoa, 258, 324. 

Painting — Egyptian, 31, 40, 70, 71 ; As- 
syrian and Babylonian, 154; Grecian, 
226, 258, 320. 

Palasop'oiis, site of, 374, n. ; taking of, 

374- 
Palatine Hill, 329. 
Palestine, 481 ; Roman supremacy over, 

486; revolt of, 561-563. 
Palladium, 329, n. 
Pallas, 555. 
Palmy'ra, no, 586. 
Pane rli' tin 711, 203. 
Panse'tius, 425, 454. 
Pannonia, 542. 
Panormus, battle of, 401. 
Pantai'nus ; 624. 
Panthe'on, Egyptian, 66. 
Papia'nius, 583. 
Papilius .Mutilus, 467. 
Papirius, censor, dictator, 375. 

, Carbo, 474. 

, M., 365. 

Papy'rus, 31, n. ; papyruses, 31. 

Paradise, 16, 17, 163, 175. 

Parchment, 444, n. 

Paris, the Trojan, 194, 195; Lutetia, 505, 

52 7- 
Parma, 387. 

Parme'nio, 285, 294, 296, 301. 
Paropamisan Mountains, 26, n. 
Pa'ros, 231. 
Parrhfi/sius, 260. 
Parsis, 160. 

Par'thenon, 294 ; described, 259. 
Parthia, 159, n. ; subdued by Cyrus, 167, 

309; invaded by Crassus, 509, 510; by 

Antony, 533-_ 
Parthian empire, rise of, 308, 309, 509; 

extinguished, 581 ; king, 574; war, 574, 

575-. 
Parthians, 510, 569. 
Par'thicus Maximus, surname of Seve'- 

rus, 578. 
Parys'atis, 188. 
Pasar'gadae, 188. 
Paschal lamb, 96, 101. 
Passage of the Red Sea, 96, 97 ; of Jordan, 

IOT. 

Passover, institution of the, 96, 161. 
Patmos, 566. 

Patres, or senators, 333; conscripti, 333. 
Patres Majorum et Minorum Gentium, 

332, n.; 337. 
Patrician, 500, n. ; patricians, 332, 367, 

368. 
Patrick, St., 566, 609, 631. 
Patro'clus, 194. 
Paul, St., the Apostle, 55S. 

of Thebes, 630. 

Paulus iEmilius, 434, 435. 
Pausii'nias, the historian, 209, 321. 



Pausa/nias, regent, 236-239. 

Pay first given to Roman troops, 363. 

Peace, temple of, 565. 

Pelasgia, 192. 

Pelas'gi, or Pelasgians, 192, 193. 

Pelasgic race, 26, 192. 

Pelasgo-Tyrrrhenians, 75. 

Pelignians, 374, 467. 

Pella, Philip v shuts himself up in, 426. 

Pelop'idas, 278, 280. 

Peloponne'sian war, 244-255; aims and 
forces of the belligerents, 244. 

Peloponne'sus, 191, 198, 199. 

Pe'lops, 191. 

PeneKope, 195. 

Penjab, 298. 

Pentathlum, 203. 

Pentaour, 49. 

Pepi, 35. 

Perdic'cas, 284, 302. 

Perduel'es, public enemies, 466, 492. 

Pergamena charta, 444, n. 

Per'gamus, kingdom of, 308 ; school of 
art at, 320, 443, 444. 

Perian'der, 223. 

Per'icles, 241, 244, 247. 

Periodus, first geographical work, 267. 

Periceci, 206, 242. 

Perce'a, 313. 

Peripatetic school, 324. 

Perper'na, 478. 

Persecution — 1st general, 55S; 2d, 566; 
3d, 570; 4th, 574, 575; 5th, 578; 6th 
and 7th, 583; 8th, 584; 9th, 586; 10th, 
589, 623. 

Persep'olis, 179 ; palaces at, 179-181. 

Persecutors, chastisement of, 589. 

PersepOPitan ruins, 180, 181. 

Perseus, the hero, 193 ; last king of 
Macedon, 434, 435. 

Persia, or Persis, 157, 159, n. ; 171. 

Persian empire, 163-189; its extent, 170; 
military force, 177 ; decline, 1S2; royal 
judges and secretaries, 177; scribe?, 
1S3; palaces, 18a; architecture, i8t ; 
magnificence, 181 ; policy, 292 ; wars 
with the Greeks, 239-242 ; second, 581, 

583. 
Persians, 26, 125, 148 ; described by 

Herod'oius, 165, 366; degeneracy of 

the, 170, 171, 230, 589, 606, 610, 611. 
Pertinax, 577. 

Perversion of the human race, 19, 20. 
Peter, St., 549, 553. 
Petra, Csesar outgeneralled near, 517. 
Pha;dina, 174. 
Phse'drus, 621. 
Phakee, 118, 133, 134. 
Phakeia, 134. 

Pha'lan.x, Macedonian, 2S4. 
Phaleric wall, 238. 
Phalc'rum, 238, 244. 
Pharaoh-hophra, or Apries, 121. 

Necao, 59-61, 142. 

, title, 42, n. ; Joseph's, 42, 43, 

91 ; daughter of, 94 ; Moses', 95- 1; . 
Pharisees, rise of the, 313. 
Pharnaba'zus, 257. 
Phar'naces, 519. 
Pha'ros, lighthouse of, 306. 



654 



INDEX. 



Pharsaflia, the, 621 ; Pharsaiia, battle 

of, 517. 5*8. 
Phasga, 100. 
Phidias, 244, 260. 
Phi'don, 205. 
1 nile inon, 321. 
Philip, emperor, 583. 
■ — 11 of Macedon, 284-285, 287-290; 

his letter to Aristotle, 289. 

in Arrhidse'us, 302, 314, n. 

iv, 314. 

V, 317, 419, 426. 



, the physician, 294. 

Philip 'pi, foundation of, 285 ; battle of, 

53°. 
Philip' pics of Demosthenes, 286 ; of 

Cicero 528, 529. 
I'hilip'pus, the polemarch, 278, 279. 
Philistia, 35. 
Philis'tines, 26, 75, 106, 108, 109, 114, 117, 

119, 140. 
Phl'lo, Quintus Publilius, first proconsul, 

374. 

Philopce'men, 317, 318. 

Philosophers, Greek, philosophy, 323. 

Philo'tas, 301. 

Phln'ees, 108. 

Pho'cians, 233, 234, 245, 285, 288. 

Pho'cion, 287, 292. 

Phoce'a, 200, 227. 

Pho'cis, 191,200,243,245,288. 

Phoenicia 73-80; resources of, 73; cities 
of, 74 ; relations to Egypt, 74; Roman 
supremacy over, 486. 

Phoenician — alphabet, 75; navigators, 
75- 

Phoenicians, 44, 74, 75, 140, 180, 229. 

Phogor, 100. 

Phraartes, 542. 

Phrygia, 293, 469. 

Phrygians, 165. 

Phrynlcus, 263. 

Pbthah, 66, 67. 

Phul or Theglathphalasar 11, 133, 134. 

Phut, 26. 

Piankhi, 54, 55. 

Picentines, 467. 

Picts, 572, 608, 609. 

Piimeli'«n, or Pygmalion, 77. 

Pila, 388 ; pi/is in/estis, 388. 

Pillared halls, 180; edifices, 181. 

Pillars of Hercules, 60; in Persian archi- 
tecture, 1S1. 

Pindar, 262. 

Pinetem, 53. 

Pirje'us, 238; improved, 244. 

Piracy — among the early Greeks, 197; in 
the Mediterranean, 480, 43i. 

Pirates of Corcyra, 404 • in the Mediter- 
ranean, 480, 481. 

Pisidia, 139. 

Pisis'tratus collects Homeric poems, 196; 
usurpation of, 216,217. 

Pi 'so, consul, 500. 

Pithom, 94. 

Pit'tacus, 223. 

Placentia, Roman military colony at, 377, 
406; destroyed by the Gauls', 429. 

Placidia, 610, 612. 



Plague at Athens, 246 , plagues of Egypt, 

95, 96. 
Plancus, 529, 530. 
Plaift, the, 217. 
Platae'a, city of, 230, n. ; 231; battle of, 

236-237 J siege of, 247. 
Platas'ans, 230, 245. 
Platform at Nirnrud, 131; of Persian 

palaces, 180. 
Plato on Pericles, 247; 272; 323-324. 
Plautus, 617. 
Plebeian, tribunes instituted, 350; 

e'diles, 351, questors, 362; consuls, 

368. 
Plebeians, the, 350; concessions to, 

354, 37i; citadel of, 357. 
Plebiscites, 360, 371, 372. 
Plebs, 332, 336, 350. 
Pliny the Elder, 565, 621. 
the Younger, 565; and the Chris- 
tians, 570, 621, 622, 629. 
Plunder of Greek -works of art, 321. 
Plutarch, 235, 285, 415, n. 
Pcecilc Stoa, 25S, 324. 
Poem3, Egyptian epic, 49, n. 
Poeni, see Carthaginians. 
Poetry, Egyptian, 49, 60; Grecian, 221, 

222, Latin, 416-420. 
Poets, lyrics, 221,' 222. 
Polemarch, the, 213. 
Political assemblies, at Rome, 449. ' 
Pollio, 532. 

Polus of Agrigentum, rhetor, 271. 
Polyblus, 328, n.; 366, 396, 412, 414, 415, 

n., 423; a hostage at Rome, 435, 436, 

454- 

Pol'ycarp, St., 576. 

Polycle'tus, 260. 

Polyc'rates of Samos, 227. 

Polydec'tes, 205, 

Polyg'amy not found in Greece, 204. 

Polygno'tus, 260. 

Polysper'chon, 302. 

Ponipas'dius Si'lo, 467. 

Pompeii, destruction of, 564, H.; 565. 

Pompelus Stra'bo, 467, 476. 

Pom'pey, Cn., the Great, 473, 476-482, 
497-499, 50S, 511-519. 

, Sextus, son of the preced- 
ing, 521, 526, 532. 

Pons Sublicius, or Sublician Bridge, 336, 
346. 

Pontifez Mctximus, 334, n. 

Pontifical college, 497. 

Pontiffs, institution of, 334, 

Pon'tius, Roman, 366. 

, C, Samnite, 375. 

, Telesinus, 474. 

Pon'tus, kingdom of, 469. 

Pontus, Euxi'nus, (Black Sea), 469. 

Popil'ius Lse'nas. 309. 

Poppas'a, 555, 556. 

Populace, Koman, conciliated by Au- 
gustus, 538, 539. 

Population, decrease of the free in 
Italy, 451, n; of the empire, 541; of 
Rome, 54>. 

Porsena Lars, 346, 347. 

Portus Julius, 532. 



INDEX. 



655 



Pa'rus, 298. 

Posturnius, Regillensis, 2nd dictator, 
348; another, also dicta- 
tor, 360. 

, Albinus, 459. 

1 , Aldus, 459. 

Pothi'nus, St., 576. 

Potidae'a, 285. 

Poti'tus, 609. 

Pourrieres, 464. 

Poverty, of the plebeians, 349, 449, 365. 

Prcefec'ti Sociorum, 389. 

Praenes'te, 371. 

Prat'nas, 263. 

Praxit'eles, 319. 

Prcefectus pretorii, 541. 

Pretorian Guards, 541; camp, 541, 560. 

Pretorians offer the empire for sale, 577. 

Pre'tors, 369; pretor urbanus, peregrinus, 

369- 

Pre'torship, institution of the, 369. 

Prexap'ses, 171. 

Priam, 194. 

Priests, Egyptian, 63, 64. 

Primi, 388, n. 

Princeps senatus, chief of the senate, 
522, 538. 

Princes in Homeric times, 197. 

Principes, 3S6, 388, n., 389. 

Privernum, 370; conquered 374. 

Pro'bus emperor, 5S7. 

Pro'eas, 329. 

PrO'cies, 205. 

Proconsul, first, 374; proconsuls, pow- 
er and extortions, 445. 

Proconsulship, 374, n. 

PrOdicus of Ceos, rhetor, 265, 269, 270. 

Proletarians enlisted by Marius, 461. 

Proletarii, 340, n., 341. 

Promised Land, conquest of, 102. 

Propretors' power and extortions, 445, 
446. 

Propylse'a, 180; on the acrop'olis 244- 
25S. 

Protag'oras of Abdera, rhetor, 270. 

Proscriptions at Athens, 256; of Marius, 
471, 472; of Sulla, 470, 474. 

ProtOg'enes, 304. 

Province, meaning of the word, 403. 

Provinces Roman, two formed in Spain, 
430; 443; government of, 444; the im- 
perial, 540, 541; the senatorial, 540, 

541- 

Provincials and Romans, 60S. 

Provincial system, 444, 540-541. 

Prosperity of the empire under Tiber- 
ius, 550. 

Prox'enus, 274. 

Prusias, 435. 

Prytaneum, 273. 

Psamatik iii, 63. 

Psammenitus, 171, 172. 

Psammte'ichus, 57, 59, 64. 

Pseudo-Smerdis, 173, 174. 

Ptolema3'us Apion, last king of Cyren- 
aica, 461, 462. 

Ptolemies, the, 306. 

Ptolemy i Soter, king of Egypt, 302, 
303> 306, 314. 



Ptolemy ii Philadel'phus, 306, 307. 

iii Ever'getes, 307. 

iv Philop'ator, 307, 309 

v Epipb/anes, 309. 

Aule'tes, 518. 

, Cleopatra's brother, 518, 519. 

Cerau'nus, king ; of Mace- 
donia, 314, 

, the geographer, 574. 

Publicani, 361, 432, 455, 483. 

Publilian laws, 370. 

Publilius Philo, 370. 

Pulche'ria 910, 611. 

Punic war, cause of the 1st, 396; 1st 

396-403; second, 410,411; its end 424; 

origin of the 3rd, 437. 
Punic art, 439; language and inscrip- 
tions, 440. 
Punjab, 158, 177. 
Punt, 37. 

Purim, feast of, 184. 
Putiphar, 90. 

Pyd'na, city of, 285; battle of 434. 
Pygmalion, 77. 
Pylce, gates, 233, n. 
Pylus, 249. 
Pyramids, 33; the pyramid of Cheops 

or first; 33, 34, u.; the second, 34; the 

third, 34. 
Pyr'rlia, 193. 
Pyr'rhus, 202, n., 314; in Italy, 379-3S2; 

in Sicily, 3S1; death of, 3S2. 
Pythag'oras, 220, 224. 
Pythagore'an school of philosophy, 223. 
Pythia, the virgin priestess of Delphi, 

201. 
Pythian games, 203. 
priestess at Delphi, 201 

Q. 

Quadra'tus, the Christian apologist, 

573. 624. 
Qua'di, 575, 582. 

Ques'tors, 362; urban, military, 362. 
Questorship, 362, 4S7, n. 
Quinquer ernes, 397. 
Quintilian, 621. 
Quintus Curtius, 621. 

P., Cicero's speech for, 4S7. 

Quirinal, the, 331. 
Quiri'nus, 332. 
Quiritary land, 451 
Quirites, 7,3,2, n. 

E. 

Ra, 42, n.; 66. 

Rabir'ius, 496. 

Rabsaris, 119, 136. 

Rabshakeh, 119, 136, 137. 

Radagos'sus, 607. 

Rachel, S9, 90. 

Rames'ses, city of, 94, 96. 

Rameses ' i, 46. 

ii Meriamen, 46; his wars, 

47; his works, 47-48; a 
patron of letters, 48, 49; 
the oppressor of the Isra- 
elites, 49. 



6 5 6 



INDEX. 



Karaescs iii, 51-52. 
Eameseura, 47, 52. 
Rammannirari iii, 132; his various 

names, 132. n. 
Ram'nes, 332, 337. 
Rape of the Sabines, 330. 
Raphia, battles of, 56/135, 309. 
Raven' 11a, 141, 515; capital, 610 
Rawlinson, Sir H., 128, 175. 

— George, 175. 

Razin. or Rezin, 117, 134. 

Razou, or Rezon founds kingdom of 

Damascus, 130. 
Razzias of Rameses ii, 47. 
Rebecca. 86, S7, 88. 
Redeemer, first promise of a, 17, iS; 

birth of the, 543. 
Red Sea. passage of, 96-97 
Regil'ius, Lake, battle of, 348. 
Reg'ulus in Africa, 399; embassy of, 40c. 
Reims, 592. 
Religion, Egyptian, 66-69; Assysian & 

Baoyionian, 152, 153; of the Medes, 

Persians, 159, 160; of the Greeks, 

2CI, 202. 
Re mi, 503. 
Remus, 329. 

Republic, Roman, 347-537. 
Resea, 126. 

Results of Alexander's conquests, 301. 
Retreat of the ten thousand, 275; its 

results, 275. 
Return of the oligarchical exiles, 255; 

of Cicero. 502. 
Revenues from Roman provinces, 444, 

445- 

Revolutions, Megarian, 212; Corcyre'- 
ans. 259. 

Revolt,- Ionic, 228; of the Hel'ots, 242; 
of the slaves, 442!. 464; of the gladia- 
tors, 479; of the Gauls, 404, 405-406. 

Rezin, or Razin. king of Damascus, 117, 

134- 

Rezon, or Razon, founds kingdom of 
Damascus, 130. 

Rhapsodists, 196. 

Rhea, or Ishtar, 146; Rhea Silvia, 329. 

Rhse'ti, 542. 

Rhe'gi'um, 479. 

Rhenish provinces, 551. 

Rhetors, 270. 

Rhianus, epic poem of, 209. 

Rhine.. Caesar's bridge on the, 504; 
legions on the, 541, 546. 

Rho'des, 191, 200, 239, 303, 323, 435. 

Rho'dians, 303, 429. 

Rhce'cus of Sarnos, 226. 

Rhone, Hannibal's passage of the, 
410. 

Ric'imer, 616. 

Riots at Rome, 500. 

Ritual of the dead, book, 69. 

Road, military from Egypt to. the Eu- 
phrates, or the Orontes, 73, n. 

Roads, Roman, 385. 

Rob'oam, 112, 113. 

RucK temples of Ipsambul, 47. 

Rogatio, 367, n. 

Rogations, the Licinian, 367, 368. 



Roman, franchise, or citizenship, 373, 
3&3> 284; citizens, 383; roads 3S5; army, 
385-391; camp, 390; discipline, 390; 
deceit, 437; extent of the — 1 — domin- 
ion, 444; literature 616-622. 

Romans, cause of their success, 425; 
effects of the Eastern wars on the — , 
428, 429; number, 541, 613. 

Rome, inhabitants of, 327, vicinity, 328, 
332; foundation of, 329; an asylum, 
330; sacked by the Gauls, 365, 366; 
rebuilt, 366; mistress of Italy, 382; 
arbitrary conduct of, 435; internal 
corruption of, 446; embellishment 
and population of, 542; and the bar- 
barians, 575; sacked by Alaric, 607. 
608; by Genseric, 615. 

Rom'ulus, 329-332. 

Augus'tulus, 616. 

Ros'cius of Aine'ria, Cicero's speech 
for, 4S7. 

Rosetta Stone, the, 30, n. 

Rostra, the, 379, 398. 

Royalty abolished in Greece, 210, 211. 

Roxa'na, 298; her death, 302. 

Ruben, patriarch, 89, 90; tribe of, 100. 

Rubicon crossed by Caesar, 515. 

Ruf j'nus, 610. 

Rullus, tribune, 490, 

Rutamen, 56, 138. 



S. 



Sabaco i, 55, 134, 135. 

Sabelllan race, 328, 370, 384. 

Sabine Virgins, rape of the, 330. 

Sabines, 327, 328, 370, 467, 

Sabi'nus, 504. 

Sacas, or Sacians, reduced by Cyrus, 

167. 
Sacia, 167, 175. 

Sacred Rand, the Theban, 279. 
Sacred Mount, secession to, 350. 
rites, profanation of, by Clodius, 

497- 

war, the, 285, 288. 

Sadducees, rise of, 313. 

Sages, seven, 215, 222, 223. 

Sagitarii, 388. 

Sagum, 387. 

Sagun'tum, 408; its capture, 409. 

Sa'iS, 53, 57, 58. 

Sa'ite kings, 55; later-monarchy, 57-63. 

Saramis, 236, 265, battle of, 235; battle 

of Salamis in Cyprus, 303. 
Salian priests, of Salii, 334. 
Sallust, 459, 618. 
Sarmana, 106. 
Salmanasar ii, 78. 

iii, 133, 161. 

v, 134, 135. 

Salo'na, 589. 

Salvlus, leader in the second civil war, 

4 6 5. 
Sama'ria, 118, 135; part of the kingdom 

of Jude'a, 313. 
Samar'itan Pentateuch, 20; people, 138. 



INDEX. 



657 



Saninite, first war 371; second, 374-376. 
Samnites, 327, 370; at Capua, 370, 371, 

384, 467. 
Sam'nium, subjugation of, 376. 
Sa/mos, 200, 227, 239. 
Samson, 106, 107. 
Samuel, 107. 
San'danis, 165. 
Sangitan, 614. 
Sankhkara, 37. 
Sanscrit, 157, n. 
Sapor ii, 584, 594, 598. 
Sappho, (Saf'fo) 200, 222. 
Saracus, 142. 
Sarah, or Sarai, 82-85. 
Sardanapa/lus, 127. 
Sardinia, occupied by Carthage, 393; 

by Borne, 403; war in, 431. 
Sardis, taken by Cyrus, 166-167; burned, 

228, 229. 
Sarepta, 74. 
Sargon, 135. 
Sarmatian war, 575. 
Sarmatians, 565, 574, 581, 583, 5S7, 606. 
Sarra, or Palset'yrus, 76. 
Satan, 17, n. 
Satrapies, 177. 
Sat'urn, planet, 15T, 152. 
Saturm'nus, tribune, 465, 466. 
Satyric drama, 263. 
Sat'ryus the actor, 286. 
Saufeius, 466. 
Saul, 108, 109. 
Saulmugina, 139. 
Schliemann, 198. 
Schism of the Ten Tribes, 112. 
School, the Alexandrian, 325; of Ephe- 

sus, 320; Pergamus, 320. 
Scillus, 269. 
Scinde, 177. 
Scipio Africa'nus, the Elder, 420, 424, 

his last years and death, 427, 428. 
— the Younger, de- 
stroys Carthage, 438; Numantia, 
442; his death and character, 

453. 454- 

Cn, 419, 420. 

P. C. 410, 412, 419, 420. 

Lucius, victor at Magnesia, 427. 

defeated at Thapsus, 520. 



Scopas, 319. 
Scorpio, 304. 
Scotia, Ireland, 572. 

Nova, Scotland, 572. 

Scots, 572, 608, 609. 
Scotus, 572. 
Scribes, Egyptian, 65. 
Scriptura, 445, n. 

Sculpture, Egyptian, 70, Assyrian, 153; 
Athenian, 258, 259; Grecian, 319, 320. 
Scutum, 3S1, 

Scythia, 178: invasion of, 142, 178. 
Scythian Alani, 5S7. 
Scythians, 142, 178, 227, 522, 574. 575* 
Scythic, race, 26; tribes, 159, 160. 
Sebaste, 626. 
Seboim, 82. 

Secession to the Sacred Mount, 350, 359. 
Seckhet, 67. 
Secretaries, royal, 177. 



Sedeki'ah, 61, 121, 144. 

Seistan', 159. 

Seja/nus, 548. 

Seleucia, on the Tigris, 307; in Isauria, 
629. 

Seleu'cidse, 307. 

Seleucus, king of Syria, 302, 303, 305, 
307, 314. 

Selinuntes in Cilicia, 569; in Sicily, sub- 
dued by Carthage, 394. 

Seli'nus, 252. 

Sella'' sia, battle of, 316, 317. 

Sem, 22, 25, 26, 157. 

Semir'amis, 126. 

Semitic, race, 26, 150; tribes, 125. 

Sempro'nia, sister of the Gracchi, 452. 

Sempronius, Gracchus, father of the 
Gracchi, 452. 

Senate at Rome, 333, 448 ; at Carthage, 
392. 

Senators, Roman, 448. 

Senatus consullum, or consulta, 450, n. 

Senchus Moor, 565. 

Sen'eca, 555, 621. 

Sennacherib, 56, 119; reign of, 135, 

I37» 

Sennaar, or Shinar, 25; early civiliza- 
tion in the land of, 124, 126. 

Seno'nes, 406, 505. 

Sephora, wife of Moses, 95. 

Septim/ius, Seve'rus, 46, 577, 579. 

Septuagint, 16, n., 20; version of the, 
306. 

Serto'rius, 477, [478. 

Servile war in Sicily, 422; second, 465. 

Servius Tullius, 337, 342. 

Sesac, or Sheshonk, 53, 113. 

Sesostris legend, 39. 

Set, 41, 42. 

Set Nubl, god, 67. 

Seth, 19; his race, 19. 

Seti i, 46; his Hall of columns, hia 
tomb, 46. 

Seven Sages, 215, 222/ 

Seve'rus, 606. 

Severus Alexan'der, 580-582. 

Septimlus, 517-519. 

Sextius L., first plebeian consul, 367, 
368. 

Shabatok, 56. 

Shafra, or Cephrem, 33, 34. 

Shamus, the sun, 153. 

Shepherd Kings, or Hyksos, 41, n. 

She Hands, 565. 

Shinar, or Sennaar, 124, 126. 

Shore, the, 217. 

Shufu, Ehufu, or Cheops, 33, 34. 

Sibylline books, 342. 

Sichem, 82, 90, 102. 

Sicily formed into a Roman province, 

403. 
Sicinius Denta'tus, 357, 358. 
Sicyon, 205. 
Sidon, 74; supremacy, decline of, 75; 

present state, So. 
Sido'nian kings, 75. 
Sigambri, 504, 543. 
Sig'nifer, 406. 
Signum, 406. 
Sila'nus, 551. 



6sS 



INDEX. 



Simeon, patriarch, 89. 

Simon, son of Mattathias, 312, 313. 

Simon/ides, 217. 

Simplicity of Homeric times, 196. 

Sim'yra, 74, 200. 

Sin, the moon, 153. 

Sinai, giving of the law at, 95* 

Sippara, 149. 

Sirmium, 5S7; capital, 588. 

Sis'era, 103. 

Slavery and slaves in Homeric times, 

197. 

Slavonic race, 26, 157, 158. 
Smerdis, the Magian, 173, 174. 

, son of Gyrus, 171, n. 

Social life under the Memphian Mon- 
archy, 35. 
Social war, the, 285. 
Social, or Marsic, war, 466-468. 
Society, Homeric picture of, 196; Bo- 
man, 629. 
gocii, or allies, 384, 389. 
Sociorum Prcefecti, 389. 
Soc'rates, 256, 271-273; his method of 

teaching, 273. 
Sodom, 82; destruction of, 84. 
Sogdiana, 151, 167, 298. 
Sogdianus, 187. 

Soldiers, Egyptian, 64, 385-389. 
Solomon, 77, 110-112. 
Solon, 215-216. 

Soma (intoxication), 159, 160. 
Somauli, 38. 

Sophists, 270;* meaning of name of, 270. 
Sophocles, 263-264. 

Sophom'ah, 120, 142. 

Spain, 409; war in, 419-421; 436; 478; 
Gassar in, 516, 517; 574. 

Sparta. 193, 19S, 204, 210; oppressive 
yoke of, 257; 276-279. 

Spartan, government, 206; education, 
207; citizen, 20S; women, 20S; empire, 
276-280; harmots, 276; degeneracy, 
276. 

Spartans, 206, 233-239. 

Spar'tacus, 478, 479. 

Spen'dius, 408. 

Sphacte'ria, capture of, 249. 

Spolia opi'mu,, 330, 405-406, n. 

Spu'rius Cas'sius, 350. 

Spurius Lar'tius, first dictator, 348. 

— Mse'lius, 361. 

Stagians, 324. 

Stagirite, the, 324. 

Stagi'rus, 250. 

Statjra, wife of Alexander, 29S; her 
death, 302. 

wife of Artaxerxes ii, 1S8. 

Statuary, Egyptian, 48; Grecian, 225. 

Statue of Jupiter^ Olympian, 260; of 
Hera, 260. 

Statues of Athene, 249. 

Stesich'orus, 222. 

Stil'icho, 606, 607. 

Stoa, "the Pcecile, 258; 324. 

Stoicism and Chr istianity, 576. 

Stoics, 324, 325. 

Strabo Pompeius, 467, 476. 

Stratc'gus and Strategi, 218, 316. 



Sues'sa Pometia, 342. 

Suessiones, 503. 

Sueto'nius, 557; 621. 

Sue'vi,' defeated by Ctesar, 503, 505; 582. 

Suez canal, 59, n. 

Suffu'tesy 392. 

Sulla, 462, 467, 469, 472-476. 

Sulpicius Servus, Caesar's opponent, 

513- 

Sun stands still, 102. 

Sunday, observance of, 593. 

Sundials, 151. 

Sure'nas, 510. 

Susa, 125 n.; capital of Persian em- 
pire, 179; feast at, 182; 186; 276; Alex- 
ander at, 298. 

Susiana, 123, 159, n, 

Syb'aris, 220, 225. 

Sj'e'ne, 144. 

Syen'nesis, 162. 

Sym'machus, 600. 

Sy'phax, 422, 423. 

Syr'acuse, founded, 220; besieged, 252- 
253; 416-417; spoils of, 418. 

Syria, 26, 117, 118, 131; derivation of, 
127; Roman supremacy over, 486; 

574- 
Syrians, 109, 121, 140, 143. 

Syssitia, 277. 

T. 

Tabennaa, island in the Nile, 631. 
Tabernacle, 98, 99. 
Tabernacles, feast of, in, 187. 
Tables of stone, 98, 99. 

law, ten, 357; twelve 357. 

Tacho3, 283. 

Tac 'itus, emperor, 587. 

historian, 552, n. 556, 572; 

sketch, 621. 
Tactics, Koman, 389. 
Tadmor, Palmyra, no. 
Tafnecht, 53, 55. 
Tanaquil, 337, 338. 
T&'nis, 53: new — , 47. 
Tar'anis, 580. 
Taren'tum, 220; war with, 378-383; 

subjugation of, 383; treatment of, 

419. 
Tarpe'ia, 331. 
Tarpeian Rock, 331, 367. 
Tarquinii, 336, 346. 
Tarquin'ius Priscus,~336, 337. 

. Sextus, 341, 342, 343. 

■ L. Superbus, 341-344; his 

death, 348. 
Tar'sis, 76. 

Tar'sus, 274; Alexander at, 294. 
Tartan, 119. 
Tartars, 613. 

Tauric chersone'sus, 469. 
Taurometum, 443. 
Taxation, under republican Rome, 

445; imperial, 590, 591. 
Taxes, Egyptian, 65; Roman, 445, 590, 

59i. 
Tax'iles, 298. 
Tayg'etus, Mount, 207. 



INDEX. 



659 



Teaching becomes an honorable pro- 
fession at Rome, 564, 565. 

Tegea, 210. 

Tel'amon, battle of, 404. 

Telem'achus, a monk, 607. 

Tem'enus, 198. 

Temple of Delphi, 201, 314, 315, 321, 343, 
344; seized by the Phocians, 285; of 
Artemis, or Diana, at Ephesus, 225; 
of Jerusalem, 111; rebuilt, 185; de- 
stroyed, 562; Jualin's attempt to re- 
build, 398; of Peace, 615; of Rome, 571. 

Ten Commandments, 98. 

Ten Tables of law, 357. 

Ten Thousand, retreat of, 275. 

the, of the Arcadian 

confederacy, 281. 

Ten Tribes, Schism of the, 112; idola- 
try, 113. 

Tenchtheri, 504. 

Ten'edos, 200, 229, 239. 

Ter'ence, 454, 617. 

Terentirius Arsa, 356. 

Ter' minus, god, 334. 

Tertul'iian, 622, 624-625. 

Testad'ines (tortoises), 305. 

Teta, 35. 

Tetrarogies, 263. 

Teuta, queen, 406. 

Teutoberg, forest, 545. 

Teu'tones, 463. 

Teuton'ic race, 26, 157, 158. 

Tha'les, 200, 223. 

Thames (temz), fords of the, 553. 

Thap'sus, battle of, 519, 520. 

The'baid, 630, 631. . 

The'bau (Egypt), the first monarchy, 
36-43; the new monarchy, 

43-53- 

(Greece), supremacy, 279-2S2; 

collapse of — power, 282. 

Thebans, 236, 237. 

Thebes, Egyptian, 36: sacked, 57, 138. 

■ , Grecian, 192; freed from the 

Spartan yoke, 277-279; supremacy 
of, 279-282; destruction of, 290. 

Theglathphalasar i, 129; mode of war- 
fare, 130. 

ii, 118, 133, 134; va- 
rious forms of the name, 133, n. 

Themis'tocles, 230, 231, 233, 23S, 240, 241, 

Theoc'ritus, 325. 

Theod'oric, 613, 614. 

Theoclo'rus of Samos, 226. 

Theodosia, fortress of, in Britain, 609, n, 

Theodosius the Great, 602-606. 

ii the Younger, 610, 611. 

The'ra, 245. 

TheOg'nis", of Msg'ara, 212, 270. 

TheOph'ilus, bishop of the Goths, 601. 

ThermOp'yla?, description of, 233, n; 
battles of, 234, 427. 

The'ron, 393. 

These'um, 258. 

Thes'pis, 263. 

Thespians, 234. 

Thessaloni'ca, massacre at, 604. 

'Jhes'saly, 191, 193, 2S3, 2S6, 314, 517. 

Thiras, 26. 



Thirty Tyrants, in Athens, 255, 257; in 
the Roman empire, 584, 585. 

Thirty years' truce, 243. 

Thoth, 66; book Of, 64. 

Thothmes i, 43. 

ii, 43, n. 

iii, 43-45. 

Thrace, 175, 179, 245, 302; extinction of 
the kingdom of, 307, 613. 

Thra'cian race, 26. 

Thracians, conquered by Darius, 178. 

Thra'sea Partus, 556. 

Thrasybu'lus, the Athenian, 257. 

Syracusan, 399. 

Thubal, 26. 

Thucyd'ides the historian, 246, 268-269. 

the political opponent of 

Pericles, 243. 

Thundering Legion, the, 575. 

Thynr'bron, 275. 

Ti'ber, 346. 

Tibe'rius, emperor, 542, 543,. 544, 545- 
550. 

Tibul'lus, 540; sketch, 620. 

Ti'bur, 371. 

Tici'nus, battle of the, 411. 

Tiglath-pileser ii, 78. 

Tigra/nes, 483-485. 

Tigranocer'ta, battle of, 483. 

Ti'gris, inundation of the, 142. 

Tigurini, 462. 

Timola'us, 318. 

Timo'leon, 394-395- 

Timo'theus, the Athenian, 279. 

, the Syrian general, 311. 

Tin'nius Rufus, 572. 

Tirhakah, 56, 136, 13S. 

Tiryns, 198. 

Tisam'enus, 198. 

Tissapher'nes, 274, 277. 

Tities, 332, 337. 

Titus emperor, 561-565. 

Ti'tus Tatius, 331, 332. 

Tomb of Darius, 179. 

Toparch, 66. 

Torques, or Torquis, 358 n.; 370. 

Trag'edy, origin of, 262. 

Tra'jan, 567-570. 

Trape'zus, 583. 

Trasime'nus, battle of lake, 412. 

Tre'bia, battle of the, 412. 

Trebo'nius, 508, 523, 52S. 

Treves, capital, 5S9. 

Triads of deities among the Egyptians, 
67. 

Trials, state, 488, n. 

Triarii, 3S6, 389. 

Triarius defeated by Mithrida'tes, 4S4. 

Triballians, 291. 

Tribes, Athenian, 218, 313; Roman, 332; 
urban & suburban, 383, 403; Jewish, 
schism of the ten, 111, 2iS, 313. 

Tribunes, institution of the plebe'ian, 
350; number increased, 355; consu- 
lar, 35S. 

Tribuni (crarii, officers of the treasury, 
480. 

Tribuni militum, or consular tribunes, 
360, 387. 



66o 



INDEX. 



Tribunus, 339- 

Trilogies, 263. 

Trinobantes, 553. 

Tripoli, 74. 

Triremes, 397« „ .„ 

Triumpli of Romulus, 330- Camillus, 

362, Pompey, 697. 
Triumphs of Caesar, 520. 
Triumvirate, first, 498; second, 530. 
Triumviri, three commissioners sent 

to study the laws of Greece, 356; to 

apply the agrarian law of 1. Giac- 

chus, 453. 
Tro'as, 194 
Troazen, 205, 235. 
Tio'jans, 194' x 95« 
Trojan war, 194. 
Troy, I94~ I 95' 
Tubalcain, 19. 

?uma te |kughter of Servius Tullins, 

341, 342. . 

Tullia'num (dungeon,) 336, n, 492. 
Tullus Hostil'ius, 334-33 6 - 
Turn, 67. 
Tunica, 387. 

Turan', 159, n. , 

Turanian tribes, 126. 159, n., 175, u. f 

dialect, 159, m, 327. 
Turanians, 165, n., 170. 
Turin, battle of, 592. 
Turkestan', or Turana, 159, n. 
Tur'moe, 386. , ... , 

Tus'culum, 347, 3735 Cicero s vma at, 

5 00 - 

Twelve Caesars, the 527, 621. 

Twelve tables, laws of the, 355- 

Tya'iia, 5S6. .. 

Tyrants, value of the term, 211; the 
thirty tyrants at Athens, 255. 

Tvre, 74.-79; supremacy of, 76: besieged 
by Sargon, 78; by Nabuohodonosor, 
79, 144; captured by Alexander, 294. 
295; present state, 79-80, 542. 

Tyrian colonies, 76; commerce, 76; pur- 
ple, 74. 

Tyrrhenians 77. 

Tyrtee'us, 209, 221. 

U. 

Ubii, 505- 

ni'phikis, 601, n. 

Ulys'ses, 194, 195. 

Um'brians, 367. 

(Jmbro-Sabel'lians, 327. 

Or, of the Ghaldees, 125. 

Urdamanu, 138. 

ITrukh, 82, 125, 152. 

Usip'etes, 503, 546. 

Usurtasen i, 38; ii, 38; tii> or Sesostris, 

38, 39- 
TJ'tica, 76. 
Uxellodu'num, 507. 

V. 

Vaccas'i, 441. 

Va'lens, emperor, 599-601; 623, 626. 



Valentm'ian l, 599. 

ii ; 600, 604, 605. 

■ iii, 610, 612-615. 

Vale'rian, emperor, 584. 
Valerian & Horatian laws, 355. 
Valerius Corvus, 370, 371. 
L<| 378 . 

Maximus, 621. 

— Public'ola, 346. 

VoTesus, 350. 

Valli, stakes, 386. 
Vandals, 607, 612. 
Vara'nes. 610, 611. 

Var'ro, Ter., consul, defeated by Han- 
nibal at Canute, 414. 

. the writer, 618. 

Va'rus, defeated by Germans, 544, 545. 

, proconsul of Africa, 520. 

Vasco de Gama, 60, n. 

Vasthi, 182. 

Vayu, (wind), 159. 

Yedas, 157, n. 

VS 'ii, 335, 346, 352, its position, siege 

and destruction, 362, 363. 
Veientines, 353, 354- „ ^ , , 

Veli'tse, 386-3SS; v e lleius Pater'culus, 

621. 
Ven'eti, in Gaul, 503. 

, or Venetians in Ltaly, 364, 615. 

Venetia, 360. 
Veni, vidi, vici, 519. 
Venice, 615. 
Ventid'ius, 533. 

Ve'nus, 201, 319; of Praxtt'les, 319; of 
Apel'les, 320; de Medici, n, 

planet, 151, 152. 

Venusia, Roman military colony at, 377. 

Vercel'liB, battle of, 464. 

Vercingetorix, 505, 507. 

Verona, battle of, 592; sacked, 615. 

Vei'res, 487-489- 

Vespa'sian. 553, 556, 560, 569. 

Vesta, 334. 

Vestals, or vestal virgins, 334. 

Vestinians, 467. 

Vesuntio (Besamjon), 503. 

Vesuvius, mount, battle near, 373, 474: 

eruption of 564, 570. 
Veto of the tribunes, 350. 
Vetra'nio, 596. 
Vetro'nius Turi/jrius, 581. 
Vexillarius, 406. 
Vexillum, Vexilla, 406. 
Via Flaminia, 361. 
— Sacra, 362, 364. 
Vibius Crispus, 566. 
Vibius Pansa, 52S, 529. 
Vicus Priscus, 560. 
Vicinity of Rome, place of, 328, 
Victory, altar of, 599, 600, n. 
Vicus Sceleratus, 342. 
Vindelia, 542. 
Vigiles, city guards, 533. 
Vineae, 304, 305. 
Virgil, 540; sketch, 620. 
Virginia, 35S, 359- 
Virgiuius, 358, 359« 
A 7 iriathus, 441. 
Viridom'arus, 405. 



INDEX. 



661 



Visigoths, 600, 601, 602; 606, 608. 

Vitol'lius, 55S-560. 

Volscians, 350, 353, 355, 370; fall of their 

power, 374. 
Vul, 153. 
Vulgate, the, 16, 20. 



W. 



Wales, Britons of, 553. 

Wall, great, of Barneses ii, 47. 

Walls, long, at Athens, 244; of Babylon, 

144; of Jerusalem, rebuilt, 186; of 

Servius, 338; Aurelian, 341, n., 586; of 

Hadrian, in Britain, 571. 
Wandering in the wilderness, 99. 
War, saered, 285; social, 285; Marsic, 

or social, 466-468. 
Warka, or Arach, 124, n. 
Way, iEmilian, 385; Appian, 377; Fla- 

minian, 361, 405. 
Welsh Mountains, 553. 
Western Empire, fall of, 616. 
Woman, creation of, 16. 
Works, of Barneses ii, 47; of Nabucho- 

donosor, 144-146. 
Wye, 553. 



Xanthip'pe, 291. 

Xanthippus, 400. 

Xeu'ophon, 269, 274, 275. 

Xer'xes i, 182, 184; his war against 

Greece, 232-236. 
ii, 187. 



Xuthus, 193. 
Xois, 41. 



Yavan, 135. 
Yarkand, 167. 
York, 590. 



z. 



Zab, the Great, 130. 
Zabulon, patriarch, 89; tribe of, 105. 
Zachan'ah, 117. 
Zacinthians, 245, 408, n. 
Za'ma, battle of, 423, 424. 
Zamri, 114. 
Zara, 114. 
Zeb, 106. 
Zebec, 106. 
Ze'no, 324, 325. 
Zeno'bia, 585, 586. 

Zeus, Jupiter, or Jove, 201; his statue 
at Elis, 260. 

Ammon, 36, n., 296. 

Zeuxis, 260, 284. 
Zicharbaal, or Zichae'us, 77. 
Ziggurats, 152. 
Zoroas'ter, 159. 
Zoroastrians, 173. 
Zoroastrianism, 159, 160, i68» 176. 
Zor0b'abel,i7o. 
ZOp'irus, 176. 



